Religious involvement as a social determinant of sleep: an initial review and conceptual model. Terrence D. Hill et al. Sleep Health, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2018.04.001
Abstract: Although numerous empirical studies show that religious involvement is associated with better health and longer life expectancies, researchers have virtually ignored possible links between religious involvement and sleep. To spark greater attention to this important and understudied area of sleep research, we review previous population-based studies, propose an initial conceptual model of the likely pathways for these associations, and offer several avenues for future research. Our review and critical examination suggest that religious involvement is indeed a social determinant of sleep in the United States. More religious adults in particular tend to exhibit healthier sleep outcomes than their less religious counterparts. This general pattern can be seen across large population-based studies using a narrow range of religion measurements and sleep outcomes. Our conceptual model, grounded in the broader religion and health literature, suggests that religious involvement may be associated with healthier sleep outcomes by limiting mental, chemical, and physiological arousal associated with psychological distress, substance use, stress exposure, and allostatic load. As we move forward, researchers should incorporate (1) more rigorous longitudinal research designs, (2) more sophisticated sleep measurements, (3) more complex conceptual models, (4) more comprehensive measurements of religion and related concepts, and (5) more measures of religious struggles to better assess the “dark side” of religion. Research along these lines would provide a more thorough understanding of the intersection of religious involvement and population sleep.
Keywords: Religion; Sleep; Mental health; Substance use; Stress; Allostatic load
Monday, April 30, 2018
Under male-biased sex ratios one sees greater monogamy; with female-biased ratios women shift to short-term mating orientations
Sng, O., Neuberg, S. L., Varnum, M. E. W., & Kenrick, D. T. (2018). The behavioral ecology of cultural psychological variation. Psychological Review. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/rev0000104
Abstract: Recent work has documented a wide range of important psychological differences across societies. Multiple explanations have been offered for why such differences exist, including historical philosophies, subsistence methods, social mobility, social class, climactic stresses, and religion. With the growing body of theory and data, there is an emerging need for an organizing framework. We propose here that a behavioral ecological perspective, particularly the idea of adaptive phenotypic plasticity, can provide an overarching framework for thinking about psychological variation across cultures and societies. We focus on how societies vary as a function of six important ecological dimensions: density, relatedness, sex ratio, mortality likelihood, resources, and disease. This framework can: (a) highlight new areas of research, (b) integrate and ground existing cultural psychological explanations, (c) integrate research on variation across human societies with research on parallel variations in other animal species, (d) provide a way for thinking about multiple levels of culture and cultural change, and (e) facilitate the creation of an ecological taxonomy of societies, from which one can derive specific predictions about cultural differences and similarities. Finally, we discuss the relationships between the current framework and existing perspectives.
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Human parallels and predictions.Sex ratio has a direct ecological parallel in human societies, and is defined in a similar way (e.g., Secord, 1983). There is considerable variation in sex ratio across societies. For instance, at the country level, Russia has a sex ratio of .86 (i.e., 86 males for every 100 females), whereas Kuwait.s sex ratio is 1.43 (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013). Tracking behavioral ecological work, research on the effects of sex ratio on psychological variation across societies and cultures has focused on mating dynamics. Notably, variation in sex ratio within the U.S. has been found to predict differences in inclinations towards monogamy: male-biased populations exhibit lower divorce rates and greater male parental investment (Pedersen, 1991), and higher proportions of young adult men who are married (Kruger & Schlemmer, 2009). Similarly, in hunter-gatherer groups, more male-biased sex ratios are also associated with lower divorce rates (Blurton-Jones et al., 2000) and greater paternal investment (Marlowe, 1999). More recent work has also examined how sex ratio, across nations, influences whether individuals are oriented towards more short-term or long-term mating relationships (Schmitt, 2005). In general, under male-biased sex ratios, one sees greater monogamy and tendencies towards long-term mating (Gutentag & Secord, 1983). This reflects the greater intrasexual competition men face in male-biased ecologies, and hence the need to respond by attempting to match female preferences for long-term mating relationships. Experimental work that situationally manipulates perceived sex ratios finds a similar pattern, with males shifting towards greater long-term mating orientations under male-biased sex ratios, and females shifting towards greater short-term mating orientations under female-biased sex ratios (females face greater intrasexual competition in the latter context, hence the shift towards a mating orientation that would appear more attractive to males) (Moss & Maner, 2016).
A number of aspects of marital arrangements also appear to be linked to sex ratios (Pollet & Nettle, 2007). In Uganda, polygyny (one man marrying multiple women) is more common in areas with more women, and as the number of men increases, wealthy men are more likely to have multiple wives, and poor men none (Pollet & Nettle, 2009). In China, sex ratios are becoming increasingly skewed (due to selective abortion of female fetuses), and there was by 2006 a surplus of 40 million single men (Chan, Blyth, & Chan, 2006). At the same time, the practice of bride price has been increasing in China. In some areas, there has been a fourfold increase in bride price, and half of the men living in rural areas can no longer afford a bride. In Vietnam, men are finding it more difficult to find wives, as men from other countries, with shortages of women, are paying increasingly large sums of bride price to marry Vietnamese women (Belanger & Linh, 2011).
Other indirect effects of changing situational sex ratios have been found, with male-biased sex ratios leading men to increase their spending behaviors for objects that display their wealth and resources (Griskevicius et al., 2012). Such behaviors presumably reflect similarly greater male-male competition in displaying financial resources to potential mates. Given that male-male competition is more likely to involve physical aggression, one might also predict that in societies with male-biased sex ratios that one would observe higher rates of violence. This appears to be the case, as countries that have more male-biased sex ratios have higher rates of homicide and other violent crimes (Barber, 2003; Dreze & Keher, 2000; Hudson & Den Boer, 2002). Female-biased sex ratios, on the other hand, lead women to be more career-driven (Durante et al., 2012), with such a shift ostensibly occurring because of the greater difficulty females face in finding a long-term investing partner when men are scarce. Finally, both men and women have been found to adopt more risky financial investment behaviors under more unfavorable sex ratios (i.e., more individuals of the same sex) (Ackerman, Maner & Carpenter, 2016).
Nonetheless, there is still much to be explored in terms of sex ratio.s role in explaining psychological variation across societies and cultures. One possibility is that operational sex ratios may shape the nature of xenophobia and outgroup prejudice. In societies with a strong sex-ratio bias, one might predict greater between-group prejudice, but specifically between members of the over-prevalent sex. For example, whereas males generally hold stronger outgroup prejudices than females (McDonald, Navarrete, & Van Vugt, 2012), and especially against outgroup men, one might predict that women might hold especially strong prejudices against outgroup women within societies with a female-biased sex ratio, as those outgroup women pose mating competition in an already female-competitive ecology. Such a perspective could lend unique insights into cross-society variation in intergroup conflict, and what the specific structure of such conflicts might be.
Abstract: Recent work has documented a wide range of important psychological differences across societies. Multiple explanations have been offered for why such differences exist, including historical philosophies, subsistence methods, social mobility, social class, climactic stresses, and religion. With the growing body of theory and data, there is an emerging need for an organizing framework. We propose here that a behavioral ecological perspective, particularly the idea of adaptive phenotypic plasticity, can provide an overarching framework for thinking about psychological variation across cultures and societies. We focus on how societies vary as a function of six important ecological dimensions: density, relatedness, sex ratio, mortality likelihood, resources, and disease. This framework can: (a) highlight new areas of research, (b) integrate and ground existing cultural psychological explanations, (c) integrate research on variation across human societies with research on parallel variations in other animal species, (d) provide a way for thinking about multiple levels of culture and cultural change, and (e) facilitate the creation of an ecological taxonomy of societies, from which one can derive specific predictions about cultural differences and similarities. Finally, we discuss the relationships between the current framework and existing perspectives.
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Human parallels and predictions.Sex ratio has a direct ecological parallel in human societies, and is defined in a similar way (e.g., Secord, 1983). There is considerable variation in sex ratio across societies. For instance, at the country level, Russia has a sex ratio of .86 (i.e., 86 males for every 100 females), whereas Kuwait.s sex ratio is 1.43 (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013). Tracking behavioral ecological work, research on the effects of sex ratio on psychological variation across societies and cultures has focused on mating dynamics. Notably, variation in sex ratio within the U.S. has been found to predict differences in inclinations towards monogamy: male-biased populations exhibit lower divorce rates and greater male parental investment (Pedersen, 1991), and higher proportions of young adult men who are married (Kruger & Schlemmer, 2009). Similarly, in hunter-gatherer groups, more male-biased sex ratios are also associated with lower divorce rates (Blurton-Jones et al., 2000) and greater paternal investment (Marlowe, 1999). More recent work has also examined how sex ratio, across nations, influences whether individuals are oriented towards more short-term or long-term mating relationships (Schmitt, 2005). In general, under male-biased sex ratios, one sees greater monogamy and tendencies towards long-term mating (Gutentag & Secord, 1983). This reflects the greater intrasexual competition men face in male-biased ecologies, and hence the need to respond by attempting to match female preferences for long-term mating relationships. Experimental work that situationally manipulates perceived sex ratios finds a similar pattern, with males shifting towards greater long-term mating orientations under male-biased sex ratios, and females shifting towards greater short-term mating orientations under female-biased sex ratios (females face greater intrasexual competition in the latter context, hence the shift towards a mating orientation that would appear more attractive to males) (Moss & Maner, 2016).
A number of aspects of marital arrangements also appear to be linked to sex ratios (Pollet & Nettle, 2007). In Uganda, polygyny (one man marrying multiple women) is more common in areas with more women, and as the number of men increases, wealthy men are more likely to have multiple wives, and poor men none (Pollet & Nettle, 2009). In China, sex ratios are becoming increasingly skewed (due to selective abortion of female fetuses), and there was by 2006 a surplus of 40 million single men (Chan, Blyth, & Chan, 2006). At the same time, the practice of bride price has been increasing in China. In some areas, there has been a fourfold increase in bride price, and half of the men living in rural areas can no longer afford a bride. In Vietnam, men are finding it more difficult to find wives, as men from other countries, with shortages of women, are paying increasingly large sums of bride price to marry Vietnamese women (Belanger & Linh, 2011).
Other indirect effects of changing situational sex ratios have been found, with male-biased sex ratios leading men to increase their spending behaviors for objects that display their wealth and resources (Griskevicius et al., 2012). Such behaviors presumably reflect similarly greater male-male competition in displaying financial resources to potential mates. Given that male-male competition is more likely to involve physical aggression, one might also predict that in societies with male-biased sex ratios that one would observe higher rates of violence. This appears to be the case, as countries that have more male-biased sex ratios have higher rates of homicide and other violent crimes (Barber, 2003; Dreze & Keher, 2000; Hudson & Den Boer, 2002). Female-biased sex ratios, on the other hand, lead women to be more career-driven (Durante et al., 2012), with such a shift ostensibly occurring because of the greater difficulty females face in finding a long-term investing partner when men are scarce. Finally, both men and women have been found to adopt more risky financial investment behaviors under more unfavorable sex ratios (i.e., more individuals of the same sex) (Ackerman, Maner & Carpenter, 2016).
Nonetheless, there is still much to be explored in terms of sex ratio.s role in explaining psychological variation across societies and cultures. One possibility is that operational sex ratios may shape the nature of xenophobia and outgroup prejudice. In societies with a strong sex-ratio bias, one might predict greater between-group prejudice, but specifically between members of the over-prevalent sex. For example, whereas males generally hold stronger outgroup prejudices than females (McDonald, Navarrete, & Van Vugt, 2012), and especially against outgroup men, one might predict that women might hold especially strong prejudices against outgroup women within societies with a female-biased sex ratio, as those outgroup women pose mating competition in an already female-competitive ecology. Such a perspective could lend unique insights into cross-society variation in intergroup conflict, and what the specific structure of such conflicts might be.
When competing with a rival adviser for a client’s attention, the majority of participants were ready to forgo financial reward to increase their chances of being selected. Payments for influence were higher when the client did not favour the participant. Participants also used their advice confidence strategically, expressing more confidence when they were ignored
Hertz, Uri,and Bahador Bahrami 2018. “Intrinsic Value of Social Influence over Others”. PsyArXiv. April 30. psyarxiv.com/6jm7t
Abstract: The view that social rewards, such as belonging to a group and having influence on other’s behaviour have intrinsic value has been supported by recent neuroscientific studies, showing that social rewards are processed in the brain similarly to monetary rewards. Here we ask whether influencing others is a strong enough a motivation, that to secure it one might be willing to forgo monetary pay offs? We examined participants online and in the lab, while playing an advice-giving game, competing with a rival adviser for a client’s attention. Majority of participants were ready to forgo financial reward to increase their chances of being selected over their rival. Payments for influence were higher when the client did not favour the participant. Participants also used their advice confidence strategically, expressing more confidence when they were ignored by the client. Both means of persuasion were affected by the participants performance – performance relative to the rival adviser affected advice confidence, while one’s own accuracy affected payments. In both cases performing better led to increase use of persuasion. These results imply that influence on others is inherently valuable and exchangeable for monetary reward.
Abstract: The view that social rewards, such as belonging to a group and having influence on other’s behaviour have intrinsic value has been supported by recent neuroscientific studies, showing that social rewards are processed in the brain similarly to monetary rewards. Here we ask whether influencing others is a strong enough a motivation, that to secure it one might be willing to forgo monetary pay offs? We examined participants online and in the lab, while playing an advice-giving game, competing with a rival adviser for a client’s attention. Majority of participants were ready to forgo financial reward to increase their chances of being selected over their rival. Payments for influence were higher when the client did not favour the participant. Participants also used their advice confidence strategically, expressing more confidence when they were ignored by the client. Both means of persuasion were affected by the participants performance – performance relative to the rival adviser affected advice confidence, while one’s own accuracy affected payments. In both cases performing better led to increase use of persuasion. These results imply that influence on others is inherently valuable and exchangeable for monetary reward.
Men also infer that other men with luxury performance cars are oriented towards short-term mating & see them more as rivals and potential mate poachers than as friends
What Do Economically Costly Signals Signal?: a Life History Framework for Interpreting Conspicuous Consumption. Daniel J. Kruger, Jessica S. Kruger. Evolutionary Psychological Science, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40806-018-0151-y
Abstract: Compared to women, men have a greater tendency to make conspicuous wealth displays and typically make greater contributions in non-somatic provisioning. Male resource displays often predict future paternal resource investments; however, some conspicuous displays may function as mating effort at the cost of investment potential. Men who tend to make such displays may have less interest in long-term relationship investment and commitment and greater interest in short-term sexual relationships. Undergraduates read descriptions of two men purchasing automobiles with the same budget. One man purchased a new car for the sake of reliability (frugal investment); the other purchased a used car and allocated the remaining funds to conspicuous display features (new paint, larger wheels, louder sound system). Participants rated each character on life history characteristics, relationship interests, and relationship attractiveness. Participants rated the man who invested in flashy display higher on mating effort, lower on parental investment, higher on interest in brief sexual affairs, lower on interest in long-term committed romantic relationships, higher in attractiveness to women for brief sexual affairs, and lower in attractiveness to women for long-term committed romantic relationships, compared to the man with a frugal investment strategy. Participants demonstrated an intuitive understanding that some male conspicuous displays can indicate faster life history strategies. Human male luxury displays associated with high mating effort life histories may mimic the properties of male secondary sexual characteristics across species, and these displays may be more prevalent in environments fostering faster life histories.
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Effects of socioeconomic status displays on attractiveness have been found in laboratory studies using pictures of luxury and standard apartments (Dunn and Hill 2014) and clothing indicating socioeconomic status (Nelissen and Meijers 2011; Townsend and Levy 1990). Automobiles may be popular as stimuli in studies of conspicuous consumption (e.g., Guéguen and Lamy 2012; Hennighausen et al. 2016; Sundie et al. 2011), because they enable comparisons of luxury and practical attributes (Kruger 2008) and portable displays of wealth are more suitable for establishing initial attraction. As demonstrated by this study and others, even those who do not necessarily have extensive experiences with or knowledge of cars have reactions consistent with expectations. Men are rated as more attractive when standing next to luxury cars than economy cars (Dunn and Searle 2010; Shuler andMcCord 2010). Women are more likely to provide contact information to men standing next to luxury cars than economy cars or mid-range cars (Guéguen and Lamy 2012).Women see men with expensive luxury cars as more interested in and attractive for shortterm, uncommitted sexual relationships than men with economy cars (Sundie et al. 2011). Men also infer that other men with luxury performance cars are oriented towards short-term mating and see them more as rivals and potential mate poachers than as friends (Hennighausen et al. 2016).
[...] Our theoretical framework proposes that male resource displays functioning primarily as mating effort will mimic the exaggerated physiological and behavioral properties featured in male secondary sexual characteristics that facilitate mating competition across species. We utilized personal automobiles in our scenarios because they enable displays that are portable, highly visible, and easily recognized by a wide variety of individuals. There are prolific industries devoted to automotive aftermarket modifications for a wide variety of attributes, including performance, utility, safety, and display attributes. The specific attributes described in the flashy man’s automobile, exaggerated size, coloration, and sound mimic the properties of exaggerated male secondary sexual characteristics across species. Such properties are instrumental in the processes of intrasexual competition and mate attraction and may be especially appropriate for soliciting short-term sexual relationships. Conspicuous features functioning as mating effort may be broadcast to a wide audience, rather than requiring prior knowledge of content or individual reputation. In contrast, displays predicting substantial future resource investment in offspring and romantic partners may be more directed in terms of audience, focused in terms of content, and more dependent on prior knowledge and reputation. These properties may facilitate assortative mating with high quality mates for longterm partnerships. Such resource displays may function as ingroup signals (for those of high social class) and are more likely to be semi-cryptic shibboleths where recognition is dependent on the audience’s prior reputational knowledge. There is a common cultural dynamic where the reigning aristocracy denigrates the nouveau riche for their ostentatious displays of wealth. By definition, these gaudy displays feature exaggerated sensory properties (size, coloration, etc.). Ostentation may be an inherent strategy by those wishing to advertise (newly acquired) wealth and status to audiences where they do not possess the reputational status markers of the establishment.
Of course, commercial marketers may mix these signal channels for the purpose of promoting sales to those interested in acquiring status. Marketers continually invent “luxury” brands that provide higher profit margins on products emerging from the same mass production systems as more proletarian items. These branding exercises often promote an image of economic abundance as well as a façade of tradition and inherited wealth. Contemporary marketers developing new luxury brand names seem to be particularly fond of ampersands, perhaps for their antiquated appearance and suggestion of origins in long-established traditions.
Our life history-based theoretical framework provides both the prediction of and explanation for functional variation in the signal content of male resource displays. This framework proposes that the degree to which male displays reflect high investment in mating effort at the expense of paternal investment will directly follow from environmental conditions fostering faster human life history strategies. The material functional analogues of male secondary sexual characteristics will be more prevalent in human environments with shorter life expectancies, less predictable mortality incidence, lower predictability of access to material resources, lower levels of personal safety, lower social cohesion, and greater socioeconomic inequality. This model also advances the discussion of tendencies for conspicuous consumption beyond Marxistderived explanations based in symbols of social class membership or ethnic group stereotypes. From a life history perspective, demographic categories are crude indicators for meaningful variation in underlying factors. Darwin noted that differences in the mental faculties of humans and other animals are “Differences of degree, rather than kind” (1871b/ 1981, p.83). If variability in psychology and behavior across species is on a continuous spectrum, certainly variation within our own species is along a gradient rather than a collection of types and likely a reflection of facultative adaptations to environmental conditions.
Abstract: Compared to women, men have a greater tendency to make conspicuous wealth displays and typically make greater contributions in non-somatic provisioning. Male resource displays often predict future paternal resource investments; however, some conspicuous displays may function as mating effort at the cost of investment potential. Men who tend to make such displays may have less interest in long-term relationship investment and commitment and greater interest in short-term sexual relationships. Undergraduates read descriptions of two men purchasing automobiles with the same budget. One man purchased a new car for the sake of reliability (frugal investment); the other purchased a used car and allocated the remaining funds to conspicuous display features (new paint, larger wheels, louder sound system). Participants rated each character on life history characteristics, relationship interests, and relationship attractiveness. Participants rated the man who invested in flashy display higher on mating effort, lower on parental investment, higher on interest in brief sexual affairs, lower on interest in long-term committed romantic relationships, higher in attractiveness to women for brief sexual affairs, and lower in attractiveness to women for long-term committed romantic relationships, compared to the man with a frugal investment strategy. Participants demonstrated an intuitive understanding that some male conspicuous displays can indicate faster life history strategies. Human male luxury displays associated with high mating effort life histories may mimic the properties of male secondary sexual characteristics across species, and these displays may be more prevalent in environments fostering faster life histories.
---
Effects of socioeconomic status displays on attractiveness have been found in laboratory studies using pictures of luxury and standard apartments (Dunn and Hill 2014) and clothing indicating socioeconomic status (Nelissen and Meijers 2011; Townsend and Levy 1990). Automobiles may be popular as stimuli in studies of conspicuous consumption (e.g., Guéguen and Lamy 2012; Hennighausen et al. 2016; Sundie et al. 2011), because they enable comparisons of luxury and practical attributes (Kruger 2008) and portable displays of wealth are more suitable for establishing initial attraction. As demonstrated by this study and others, even those who do not necessarily have extensive experiences with or knowledge of cars have reactions consistent with expectations. Men are rated as more attractive when standing next to luxury cars than economy cars (Dunn and Searle 2010; Shuler andMcCord 2010). Women are more likely to provide contact information to men standing next to luxury cars than economy cars or mid-range cars (Guéguen and Lamy 2012).Women see men with expensive luxury cars as more interested in and attractive for shortterm, uncommitted sexual relationships than men with economy cars (Sundie et al. 2011). Men also infer that other men with luxury performance cars are oriented towards short-term mating and see them more as rivals and potential mate poachers than as friends (Hennighausen et al. 2016).
[...] Our theoretical framework proposes that male resource displays functioning primarily as mating effort will mimic the exaggerated physiological and behavioral properties featured in male secondary sexual characteristics that facilitate mating competition across species. We utilized personal automobiles in our scenarios because they enable displays that are portable, highly visible, and easily recognized by a wide variety of individuals. There are prolific industries devoted to automotive aftermarket modifications for a wide variety of attributes, including performance, utility, safety, and display attributes. The specific attributes described in the flashy man’s automobile, exaggerated size, coloration, and sound mimic the properties of exaggerated male secondary sexual characteristics across species. Such properties are instrumental in the processes of intrasexual competition and mate attraction and may be especially appropriate for soliciting short-term sexual relationships. Conspicuous features functioning as mating effort may be broadcast to a wide audience, rather than requiring prior knowledge of content or individual reputation. In contrast, displays predicting substantial future resource investment in offspring and romantic partners may be more directed in terms of audience, focused in terms of content, and more dependent on prior knowledge and reputation. These properties may facilitate assortative mating with high quality mates for longterm partnerships. Such resource displays may function as ingroup signals (for those of high social class) and are more likely to be semi-cryptic shibboleths where recognition is dependent on the audience’s prior reputational knowledge. There is a common cultural dynamic where the reigning aristocracy denigrates the nouveau riche for their ostentatious displays of wealth. By definition, these gaudy displays feature exaggerated sensory properties (size, coloration, etc.). Ostentation may be an inherent strategy by those wishing to advertise (newly acquired) wealth and status to audiences where they do not possess the reputational status markers of the establishment.
Of course, commercial marketers may mix these signal channels for the purpose of promoting sales to those interested in acquiring status. Marketers continually invent “luxury” brands that provide higher profit margins on products emerging from the same mass production systems as more proletarian items. These branding exercises often promote an image of economic abundance as well as a façade of tradition and inherited wealth. Contemporary marketers developing new luxury brand names seem to be particularly fond of ampersands, perhaps for their antiquated appearance and suggestion of origins in long-established traditions.
Our life history-based theoretical framework provides both the prediction of and explanation for functional variation in the signal content of male resource displays. This framework proposes that the degree to which male displays reflect high investment in mating effort at the expense of paternal investment will directly follow from environmental conditions fostering faster human life history strategies. The material functional analogues of male secondary sexual characteristics will be more prevalent in human environments with shorter life expectancies, less predictable mortality incidence, lower predictability of access to material resources, lower levels of personal safety, lower social cohesion, and greater socioeconomic inequality. This model also advances the discussion of tendencies for conspicuous consumption beyond Marxistderived explanations based in symbols of social class membership or ethnic group stereotypes. From a life history perspective, demographic categories are crude indicators for meaningful variation in underlying factors. Darwin noted that differences in the mental faculties of humans and other animals are “Differences of degree, rather than kind” (1871b/ 1981, p.83). If variability in psychology and behavior across species is on a continuous spectrum, certainly variation within our own species is along a gradient rather than a collection of types and likely a reflection of facultative adaptations to environmental conditions.
Sunday, April 29, 2018
God, I Can’t Stop Thinking About Sex! The Rebound Effect in Unsuccessful Suppression of Sexual Thoughts Among Religious Adolescents
God, I Can’t Stop Thinking About Sex! The Rebound Effect in Unsuccessful Suppression of Sexual Thoughts Among Religious Adolescents. Yaniv Efrati. The Journal of Sex Research, https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2018.1461796
Abstract: The rebound effect of thought suppression refers to attempts to suppress thoughts that result in an increase of those thoughts. The aim of this three-study research was to investigate the suppression of thoughts and its possible importance in the cognitive model of predicted compulsive sexual behavior (CSB) among Israeli Jewish religious and secular adolescents. Study 1 (N = 661): Do religious and secular adolescents differ in CSB and related psychopathology? Study 2 (N = 522): Does CSB mediate the link between religiosity and well-being? Study 3 (N = 317): Does religiosity relate to suppression of sexual thoughts, which relates to higher CSB and lower well-being? The analyses indicated that religious adolescents are higher in CSB than secular ones, and that sexual suppression and CSB mediate the link between religiosity and well-being. Results are discussed and address the need for a broader understanding of CSB and the function of thought suppression.
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Some limitations of the research should be acknowledged. First, the research population was very homogeneous and local: Jewish Israeli adolescents. Future studies should examine other age groups and diverse religious and cultural populations to ascertain the replicability and generalizability of the findings.
Future research might also address the relationship between sexually related problems and a broader spectrum of variables that examine social support available to adolescents: parents, family, peers, and additional significant others. It would also be interesting to distinguish between elements of spirituality and religion, dividing behavior into positive and negative coping. Thus, religious coping that relies on spiritual connections, forgiveness, and benevolence could be positive. However, it could also be negative if based on spiritual discontent, a “punishing” God, or interpersonal friction on religious grounds (Pargament, Smith, Koenig, & Perez, 1998). In addition, Studies 1 to 3 are correlational and so do not allow us to conclude that religious beliefs are the cause of sexual suppression or individual CSB. Longitudinal studies could help in deciphering the directionality of these links.
Despite these shortcomings, we view the current research as an important step in understanding adolescents’ suppression of sexual thoughts, taking into account the culturalreligious context as a major component in adolescents’sexual development.
Abstract: The rebound effect of thought suppression refers to attempts to suppress thoughts that result in an increase of those thoughts. The aim of this three-study research was to investigate the suppression of thoughts and its possible importance in the cognitive model of predicted compulsive sexual behavior (CSB) among Israeli Jewish religious and secular adolescents. Study 1 (N = 661): Do religious and secular adolescents differ in CSB and related psychopathology? Study 2 (N = 522): Does CSB mediate the link between religiosity and well-being? Study 3 (N = 317): Does religiosity relate to suppression of sexual thoughts, which relates to higher CSB and lower well-being? The analyses indicated that religious adolescents are higher in CSB than secular ones, and that sexual suppression and CSB mediate the link between religiosity and well-being. Results are discussed and address the need for a broader understanding of CSB and the function of thought suppression.
---
Some limitations of the research should be acknowledged. First, the research population was very homogeneous and local: Jewish Israeli adolescents. Future studies should examine other age groups and diverse religious and cultural populations to ascertain the replicability and generalizability of the findings.
Future research might also address the relationship between sexually related problems and a broader spectrum of variables that examine social support available to adolescents: parents, family, peers, and additional significant others. It would also be interesting to distinguish between elements of spirituality and religion, dividing behavior into positive and negative coping. Thus, religious coping that relies on spiritual connections, forgiveness, and benevolence could be positive. However, it could also be negative if based on spiritual discontent, a “punishing” God, or interpersonal friction on religious grounds (Pargament, Smith, Koenig, & Perez, 1998). In addition, Studies 1 to 3 are correlational and so do not allow us to conclude that religious beliefs are the cause of sexual suppression or individual CSB. Longitudinal studies could help in deciphering the directionality of these links.
Despite these shortcomings, we view the current research as an important step in understanding adolescents’ suppression of sexual thoughts, taking into account the culturalreligious context as a major component in adolescents’sexual development.
Clinical experience is positively associated with increased confidence & perceived mastery in clinical ability, increased flexibility in professional identity & therapeutic orientation, reduced stress & anxiety in clinical practice, & improvements in clinical judgment & decision-making, but not to ability to increase quality
Years of Clinical Experience and Therapist Professional Development: A Literature Review. Glen C. Dawson. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, June 2018, Volume 48, Issue 2, pp 89–97. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10879-017-9373-8
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to review the effect of years of clinical experience on aspects of therapist professional development. Themes within this specific literature were determined inductively as part of an all-inclusive review. Years of clinical experience were found to be positively associated with increased confidence and perceived mastery in clinical ability, increased flexibility in professional identity and therapeutic orientation, reduced stress and anxiety in clinical practice, and improvements in clinical judgment and decision-making. Although years of experience were found to relate to increased therapist focus on the therapeutic relationship, evidence does not suggest that it is associated with improved ability to increase its quality. It is unclear how years of clinical experience affect therapist usage of and attitude towards evidence supported treatments and evidence based practice given the interference of age cohort effects. This literature is limited by overly-proportionate psychodynamic samples and the use of primarily cross-sectional designs.
Check also:
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to review the effect of years of clinical experience on aspects of therapist professional development. Themes within this specific literature were determined inductively as part of an all-inclusive review. Years of clinical experience were found to be positively associated with increased confidence and perceived mastery in clinical ability, increased flexibility in professional identity and therapeutic orientation, reduced stress and anxiety in clinical practice, and improvements in clinical judgment and decision-making. Although years of experience were found to relate to increased therapist focus on the therapeutic relationship, evidence does not suggest that it is associated with improved ability to increase its quality. It is unclear how years of clinical experience affect therapist usage of and attitude towards evidence supported treatments and evidence based practice given the interference of age cohort effects. This literature is limited by overly-proportionate psychodynamic samples and the use of primarily cross-sectional designs.
Check also:
Patient outcome's variability is weakly or not related to competence, training nor adherence of therapists:
Common versus specific factors in psychotherapy: opening the black box. RogerMulder, Greg Murray, Julia Rucklidge. The Lancet Psychiatry, Volume 4, Issue 12, December 2017, Pages 953-962. https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/11/patient-outcomes-variability-is-weakly.html
Psychotherapy was a marvellous invention, but initial enthusiasm regarding its efficacy has now been obfuscated due to scientific biases that systematically inflate estimates:
Raising awareness for the replication crisis in clinical psychology by focusing on inconsistencies in psychotherapy research: how much can we rely on published findings from efficacy trials? Michael P. Hengartner. Front. Psychol. | doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00256, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/02/psychotherapy-was-marvellous-invention.html
Conspiracy theories about government officials and the institutions they represent are widespread, and span the ideological spectrum. System identity threat, or a perception that society's fundamental, defining values are under siege due to social change, predict conspiracy thinking
The Role of System Identity Threat in Conspiracy Theory Endorsement. Christopher M. Federico, Allison L. Williams, Joseph A. Vitriol. European Journal of Social Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2495
Abstract: Conspiracy theories about government officials and the institutions they represent are widespread, and span the ideological spectrum. In this study, we test hypotheses suggesting that system identity threat, or a perception that society's fundamental, defining values are under siege due to social change will predict conspiracy thinking. Across two samples (N=870, N=2,702), we found that system identity threat is a strong predictor of a general tendency toward conspiracy thinking and endorsement of both ideological and non‐ideological conspiracy theories, even after accounting for numerous covariates. We also found that the relationship between system‐identity threat and conspiracy‐theory endorsement is mediated by conspiracy thinking. These results suggest that conspiracy‐theory endorsement may be a compensatory reaction to perceptions that society's essential character is changing.
Abstract: Conspiracy theories about government officials and the institutions they represent are widespread, and span the ideological spectrum. In this study, we test hypotheses suggesting that system identity threat, or a perception that society's fundamental, defining values are under siege due to social change will predict conspiracy thinking. Across two samples (N=870, N=2,702), we found that system identity threat is a strong predictor of a general tendency toward conspiracy thinking and endorsement of both ideological and non‐ideological conspiracy theories, even after accounting for numerous covariates. We also found that the relationship between system‐identity threat and conspiracy‐theory endorsement is mediated by conspiracy thinking. These results suggest that conspiracy‐theory endorsement may be a compensatory reaction to perceptions that society's essential character is changing.
Found no difference in treatment completion rate & broad equivalence of treatment outcomes for participants treated through self-help & participants treated through a therapist; and the variability of outcomes was broadly equivalent
Understanding the Therapist Contribution to Psychotherapy Outcome: A Meta-Analytic Approach. Robert J. King et al. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, September 2017, Volume 44, Issue 5, pp 664–680. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10488-016-0783-9
Abstract: Understanding the role that therapists play in psychotherapy outcome, and the contribution to outcome made by individual therapist differences has implications for service delivery and training of therapists. In this study we used a novel approach to estimate the magnitude of the therapist contribution overall and the effect of individual therapist differences. We conducted a meta-analysis of studies in which participants were randomised to receive the same treatment either through self-help or through a therapist. We identified a total of 15 studies (commencement N = 910; completion N = 723) meeting inclusion criteria. We found no difference in treatment completion rate and broad equivalence of treatment outcomes for participants treated through self-help and participants treated through a therapist. Also, contrary to our expectations, we found that the variability of outcomes was broadly equivalent, suggesting that differences in efficacy of individual therapists were not sufficient to make therapy outcomes more variable when a therapist was involved. Overall, the findings suggest that self-help, with minimal therapist input, has considerable potential as a first-line intervention. The findings did not suggest that individual differences between therapists play a major role in psychotherapy outcome.
Abstract: Understanding the role that therapists play in psychotherapy outcome, and the contribution to outcome made by individual therapist differences has implications for service delivery and training of therapists. In this study we used a novel approach to estimate the magnitude of the therapist contribution overall and the effect of individual therapist differences. We conducted a meta-analysis of studies in which participants were randomised to receive the same treatment either through self-help or through a therapist. We identified a total of 15 studies (commencement N = 910; completion N = 723) meeting inclusion criteria. We found no difference in treatment completion rate and broad equivalence of treatment outcomes for participants treated through self-help and participants treated through a therapist. Also, contrary to our expectations, we found that the variability of outcomes was broadly equivalent, suggesting that differences in efficacy of individual therapists were not sufficient to make therapy outcomes more variable when a therapist was involved. Overall, the findings suggest that self-help, with minimal therapist input, has considerable potential as a first-line intervention. The findings did not suggest that individual differences between therapists play a major role in psychotherapy outcome.
Saturday, April 28, 2018
Soccer players: Anger display is correlated with conceding fewer goals, and happiness display with scoring more goals; the correlation between emotion portrayal and team’s performance is stronger for defensive players
Emotional expressions by sports teams: An analysis of World Cup soccer player portraits. Astrid Hopfensitz, Cesar Mantilla. Journal of Economic Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2018.04.008
Highlights
• We study the display of anger and happiness, by soccer players participating in the FIFA Soccer World Cup.
• We collected and analyzed a large database of 4,318 player portraits from 304 teams (1970 to 2014).
• We find that display of both anger and happiness is positively correlated with the teams’ performance.
• Anger display is correlated with conceding fewer goals, and happiness display with scoring more goals.
• The correlation between emotion portrayal and team’s performance is stronger for defensive players.
Abstract: Emotion display serves as incentives or deterrents for others’ in many social interactions. We study the portrayal of anger and happiness, two emotions associated with dominance, and its relationship to team performance in a high stake environment. We analyze 4,318 pictures of players from 304 participating teams in twelve editions (1970-2014) of the FIFA Soccer World Cup, and use automated face-reading (FaceReader 6) to evaluate the display of anger and happiness. We observe that the display of both anger and happiness is positively correlated with team performance in the World Cup. Teams whose players display more anger, an emotion associated with competitiveness, concede fewer goals. Teams whose players display more happiness, an emotion associated with confidence, score more goals. We show that this result is driven by less than half the players in a team.
Keywords: emotions; facial expressions; anger; happiness; contests
Highlights
• We study the display of anger and happiness, by soccer players participating in the FIFA Soccer World Cup.
• We collected and analyzed a large database of 4,318 player portraits from 304 teams (1970 to 2014).
• We find that display of both anger and happiness is positively correlated with the teams’ performance.
• Anger display is correlated with conceding fewer goals, and happiness display with scoring more goals.
• The correlation between emotion portrayal and team’s performance is stronger for defensive players.
Abstract: Emotion display serves as incentives or deterrents for others’ in many social interactions. We study the portrayal of anger and happiness, two emotions associated with dominance, and its relationship to team performance in a high stake environment. We analyze 4,318 pictures of players from 304 participating teams in twelve editions (1970-2014) of the FIFA Soccer World Cup, and use automated face-reading (FaceReader 6) to evaluate the display of anger and happiness. We observe that the display of both anger and happiness is positively correlated with team performance in the World Cup. Teams whose players display more anger, an emotion associated with competitiveness, concede fewer goals. Teams whose players display more happiness, an emotion associated with confidence, score more goals. We show that this result is driven by less than half the players in a team.
Keywords: emotions; facial expressions; anger; happiness; contests
Friday, April 27, 2018
Watching TV does not seem to diminish pleasure/happiness—as critics of TV proclaim—but individuals seem to watch TV to a greater extent whenever they experience reduced pleasure/happiness
A Daily Diary Investigation of the Link Between Television Watching and Positive Affect. Deniz Bayraktaroglu et al. Journal of Happiness Studies, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10902-018-9989-8
Abstract: Past research has shown a negative relationship between time spent watching television (TV) and several indicators of hedonic well-being—including positive affect (PA). However, cross-sectional designs employed in most of these studies do not allow for inferences regarding the direction of the link between TV watching and PA. Present research aimed to address this gap by using daily diary data from a large national sample of U.S. adults (N = 1668, age = 33–83 years). Respondents reported time spent watching TV as well as PA for eight consecutive days. Results of multilevel modeling analyses showed that duration of TV watching on the previous day did not significantly predict changes in PA on the next day. However, PA on the previous day significantly predicted decreases in duration of TV watching the following day. The results held after controlling for factors known to predict duration of TV watching and PA (i.e., age, gender, income level, employment status, marital status, health status, and personality traits). The present research goes beyond past cross-sectional work by shedding light on the direction of the link between TV watching and PA. Our findings indicate that watching TV does not seem to diminish PA—as critics of TV proclaim—but individuals seem to watch TV to a greater extent whenever they experience reduced PA.
Abstract: Past research has shown a negative relationship between time spent watching television (TV) and several indicators of hedonic well-being—including positive affect (PA). However, cross-sectional designs employed in most of these studies do not allow for inferences regarding the direction of the link between TV watching and PA. Present research aimed to address this gap by using daily diary data from a large national sample of U.S. adults (N = 1668, age = 33–83 years). Respondents reported time spent watching TV as well as PA for eight consecutive days. Results of multilevel modeling analyses showed that duration of TV watching on the previous day did not significantly predict changes in PA on the next day. However, PA on the previous day significantly predicted decreases in duration of TV watching the following day. The results held after controlling for factors known to predict duration of TV watching and PA (i.e., age, gender, income level, employment status, marital status, health status, and personality traits). The present research goes beyond past cross-sectional work by shedding light on the direction of the link between TV watching and PA. Our findings indicate that watching TV does not seem to diminish PA—as critics of TV proclaim—but individuals seem to watch TV to a greater extent whenever they experience reduced PA.
Exposure to More Female Peers Widens the Gender Gap in STEM Participation
Exposure to More Female Peers Widens the Gender Gap in STEM Participation. Anne Ardila Brenøe, Ulf Zölitz. University of Zurich Department of Economics Working Paper No. 285. https://sites.google.com/view/aabrenoe/research
Abstract: This paper investigates how high school gender composition affects students’ participation in STEM college studies. Using Danish administrative data, we exploit idiosyncratic within-school variation in gender composition. We find that having a larger proportion of female peers reduces women’s probability of enrolling in and graduating from STEM programs. Men’s STEM participation increases with more female peers present. In the long run, women exposed to more female peers earn less because they (1) are less likely to work in STEM occupations, and (2) have more children. Our findings show that the school peer environment has lasting effects on occupational sorting and the gender wage gap.
Abstract: This paper investigates how high school gender composition affects students’ participation in STEM college studies. Using Danish administrative data, we exploit idiosyncratic within-school variation in gender composition. We find that having a larger proportion of female peers reduces women’s probability of enrolling in and graduating from STEM programs. Men’s STEM participation increases with more female peers present. In the long run, women exposed to more female peers earn less because they (1) are less likely to work in STEM occupations, and (2) have more children. Our findings show that the school peer environment has lasting effects on occupational sorting and the gender wage gap.
Bored like Hell: Religiosity reduces boredom and tempers the quest for meaning
van Tilburg, W. A. P., Igou, E. R., Maher, P. J., Moynihan, A. B., & Martin, D. G. (2018). Bored like Hell: Religiosity reduces boredom and tempers the quest for meaning. Emotion. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000439
Abstract: Boredom involves a lack meaning. Conversely, religiosity offers people a sense of meaning. Accordingly, we proposed that by imbuing a sense of meaningfulnesss, religiosity leads people to experience less boredom. Furthermore, we hypothesized and tested that by reducing boredom, religiosity indirectly inhibits the search for meaningful engagement. In Study 1, following boring tasks, religious people experienced lower levels of boredom and were less motivated to search for meaning than nonreligious people. We found in Study 2 that religious (vs. non- or less religious) people reported higher perceived meaning in life, which was associated with a reduced tendency to feel bored, and with a reduced need to search for meaning in life. Study 3 confirmed that the meaning in life associated with religiosity was associated with reduced state boredom. Religious participants were again less inclined to search for meaning, which was explained by the relatively low levels of boredom that religious (vs. nonreligious) participants experienced.
Abstract: Boredom involves a lack meaning. Conversely, religiosity offers people a sense of meaning. Accordingly, we proposed that by imbuing a sense of meaningfulnesss, religiosity leads people to experience less boredom. Furthermore, we hypothesized and tested that by reducing boredom, religiosity indirectly inhibits the search for meaningful engagement. In Study 1, following boring tasks, religious people experienced lower levels of boredom and were less motivated to search for meaning than nonreligious people. We found in Study 2 that religious (vs. non- or less religious) people reported higher perceived meaning in life, which was associated with a reduced tendency to feel bored, and with a reduced need to search for meaning in life. Study 3 confirmed that the meaning in life associated with religiosity was associated with reduced state boredom. Religious participants were again less inclined to search for meaning, which was explained by the relatively low levels of boredom that religious (vs. nonreligious) participants experienced.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
Small numbers are processed on a linear scale, while large numbers are processed on a logarithmic one. Due to this, financial analysts are more optimistic about small price stocks than about large price stocks even after controlling for differences in risk factors
Behavioral bias in number processing: Evidence from analysts’ expectations. Tristan Roger, Patrick Roger, Alain Schatt. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Volume 149, May 2018, Pages 315-331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2018.02.026
Highlights
• Research in neuropsychology shows that the human brain processes small and large numbers differently.
• Small numbers are processed on a linear scale, while large numbers are processed on a logarithmic scale.
• We show that financial analysts process small prices and large prices differently.
• Analysts are more optimistic about small price stocks than about large price stocks even after controlling for differences in risk factors.
• A deeply-rooted behavioral bias in number processing drives analysts return expectations.
Abstract: Research in neuropsychology shows that individuals process small and large numbers differently. Small numbers are processed on a linear scale, while large numbers are processed on a logarithmic scale. In this paper, we show that financial analysts process small prices and large prices differently. When they are optimistic (pessimistic), analysts issue more optimistic (pessimistic) target prices for small price stocks than for large price stocks. Our results are robust when controlling for the usual risk factors such as size, book-to-market, momentum, profitability and investments. They are also robust when we control for firm and analyst characteristics, or for other biases such as the 52-week high bias, the preference for lottery-type stocks and positive skewness, and the analyst tendency to round numbers. Finally, we show that analysts become more optimistic after stock splits. Overall, our results suggest that a deeply-rooted behavioral bias in number processing drives analysts’ return expectations.
Highlights
• Research in neuropsychology shows that the human brain processes small and large numbers differently.
• Small numbers are processed on a linear scale, while large numbers are processed on a logarithmic scale.
• We show that financial analysts process small prices and large prices differently.
• Analysts are more optimistic about small price stocks than about large price stocks even after controlling for differences in risk factors.
• A deeply-rooted behavioral bias in number processing drives analysts return expectations.
Abstract: Research in neuropsychology shows that individuals process small and large numbers differently. Small numbers are processed on a linear scale, while large numbers are processed on a logarithmic scale. In this paper, we show that financial analysts process small prices and large prices differently. When they are optimistic (pessimistic), analysts issue more optimistic (pessimistic) target prices for small price stocks than for large price stocks. Our results are robust when controlling for the usual risk factors such as size, book-to-market, momentum, profitability and investments. They are also robust when we control for firm and analyst characteristics, or for other biases such as the 52-week high bias, the preference for lottery-type stocks and positive skewness, and the analyst tendency to round numbers. Finally, we show that analysts become more optimistic after stock splits. Overall, our results suggest that a deeply-rooted behavioral bias in number processing drives analysts’ return expectations.
Individuals with low cognitive ability are less likely to support equal rights for same-sex couples, regardless of education and other confounds
The cognitive roots of prejudice towards same-sex couples: An analysis of an Australian national sample. Francisco Perales. Intelligence, Volume 68, May–June 2018, Pages 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2018.03.012
Highlights
• We examine the links between cognitive ability & prejudice towards same-sex couples.
• We use a large Australian national sample (n = 11,564) & 3 separate ability measures.
• High cognitive ability leads to lower prejudice, net of a large set of confounds.
• Results hold across different ability measures & are strongest for verbal ability.
• Education partially mediates, but does not moderate, the effect of ability.
Abstract: There are well-known correlations between low cognitive ability and support of prejudicial or non-egalitarian attitudes. This paper adds to existing knowledge by providing the first analyses of the associations between cognitive ability and attitudes towards LGBT issues in a non-US sample (Australia), comparing these across three measures of cognitive ability, and examining the separate, joint and interactive effects of education and cognitive ability. Findings from a high-quality, national Australian dataset (n = 11,564) indicate that individuals with low cognitive ability are less likely to support equal rights for same-sex couples. This pattern holds in the presence of confounds, is consistent across measures of ability, and is more pronounced for verbal ability. Education and cognitive ability affect attitudes through similar channels, but retain independent effects.
Keywords: Cognitive ability; LGBT issues; Intergroup prejudice; Same-sex couples; Socio-political attitudes
Highlights
• We examine the links between cognitive ability & prejudice towards same-sex couples.
• We use a large Australian national sample (n = 11,564) & 3 separate ability measures.
• High cognitive ability leads to lower prejudice, net of a large set of confounds.
• Results hold across different ability measures & are strongest for verbal ability.
• Education partially mediates, but does not moderate, the effect of ability.
Abstract: There are well-known correlations between low cognitive ability and support of prejudicial or non-egalitarian attitudes. This paper adds to existing knowledge by providing the first analyses of the associations between cognitive ability and attitudes towards LGBT issues in a non-US sample (Australia), comparing these across three measures of cognitive ability, and examining the separate, joint and interactive effects of education and cognitive ability. Findings from a high-quality, national Australian dataset (n = 11,564) indicate that individuals with low cognitive ability are less likely to support equal rights for same-sex couples. This pattern holds in the presence of confounds, is consistent across measures of ability, and is more pronounced for verbal ability. Education and cognitive ability affect attitudes through similar channels, but retain independent effects.
Keywords: Cognitive ability; LGBT issues; Intergroup prejudice; Same-sex couples; Socio-political attitudes
Higher psychopathy scores were associated with decreased concerns about preventing harm and promoting justice. Individuals higher in psychopathic traits did not evidence deficits in moral judgement
Relations among psychopathy, moral competence, and moral intuitions in student and community samples. Jeremy G. Gay, Michael J. Vitacco, Amy Hackney, Courtney Beussink, Scott O. Lilienfeld. Legal and Criminological Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12128
Abstract
Purpose: The nature of moral decision‐making in those with pronounced psychopathic traits has been passionately debated, both in scientific literature and in the public policy arena. Research investigating the relationship between psychopathic traits and moral decision‐making capacities has been largely inconclusive. However, recent research suggests individuals with elevated psychopathic traits may exhibit abnormal moral intuitions regarding the prevention of harm (Harm) and promotion of fairness (Fairness). Although moral intuitions are widely assumed to be related to moral judgement, no research has simultaneously examined the relations among psychopathy, moral intuition, and moral judgement.
Methods: We hypothesized that psychopathic traits would not be directly related to moral judgement outcomes but would be indirectly related by way of Harm and Fairness moral intuitions. To test these hypotheses, 121 undergraduate students and 205 community residents, across two studies, completed measures of psychopathy, moral intuitions, and moral judgement.
Results: Higher psychopathy scores were associated with decreased concerns about preventing harm and promoting justice across both samples. Individuals higher in psychopathic traits did not evidence deficits in moral judgement.
Conclusions: Our findings indicate that, although individuals with elevated psychopathic traits may organize their sense of morality differently, they can accurately discern moral from immoral decisions.
Abstract
Purpose: The nature of moral decision‐making in those with pronounced psychopathic traits has been passionately debated, both in scientific literature and in the public policy arena. Research investigating the relationship between psychopathic traits and moral decision‐making capacities has been largely inconclusive. However, recent research suggests individuals with elevated psychopathic traits may exhibit abnormal moral intuitions regarding the prevention of harm (Harm) and promotion of fairness (Fairness). Although moral intuitions are widely assumed to be related to moral judgement, no research has simultaneously examined the relations among psychopathy, moral intuition, and moral judgement.
Methods: We hypothesized that psychopathic traits would not be directly related to moral judgement outcomes but would be indirectly related by way of Harm and Fairness moral intuitions. To test these hypotheses, 121 undergraduate students and 205 community residents, across two studies, completed measures of psychopathy, moral intuitions, and moral judgement.
Results: Higher psychopathy scores were associated with decreased concerns about preventing harm and promoting justice across both samples. Individuals higher in psychopathic traits did not evidence deficits in moral judgement.
Conclusions: Our findings indicate that, although individuals with elevated psychopathic traits may organize their sense of morality differently, they can accurately discern moral from immoral decisions.
Refined models say that selection favors our looking for new partners while in relationships and to allow our partners to do the same. Non‐looking is only expected to evolve if there is an extremely large cost associated with being left by your partner
Can Strategic Ignorance Explain the Evolution of Love? Adam Bear, David G. Rand. Topics in Cognitive Science, https://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12342
Abstract: People's devotion to, and love for, their romantic partners poses an evolutionary puzzle: Why is it better to stop your search for other partners once you enter a serious relationship when you could continue to search for somebody better? A recent formal model based on “strategic ignorance” suggests that such behavior can be adaptive and favored by natural selection, so long as you can signal your unwillingness to “look” for other potential mates to your current partner. Here, we re‐examine this conclusion with a more detailed model designed to capture specific features of romantic relationships. We find, surprisingly, that devotion does not typically evolve in our model: Selection favors agents who choose to “look” while in relationships and who allow their partners to do the same. Non‐looking is only expected to evolve if there is an extremely large cost associated with being left by your partner. Our results therefore raise questions about the role of strategic ignorance in explaining the evolution of love.
Abstract: People's devotion to, and love for, their romantic partners poses an evolutionary puzzle: Why is it better to stop your search for other partners once you enter a serious relationship when you could continue to search for somebody better? A recent formal model based on “strategic ignorance” suggests that such behavior can be adaptive and favored by natural selection, so long as you can signal your unwillingness to “look” for other potential mates to your current partner. Here, we re‐examine this conclusion with a more detailed model designed to capture specific features of romantic relationships. We find, surprisingly, that devotion does not typically evolve in our model: Selection favors agents who choose to “look” while in relationships and who allow their partners to do the same. Non‐looking is only expected to evolve if there is an extremely large cost associated with being left by your partner. Our results therefore raise questions about the role of strategic ignorance in explaining the evolution of love.
Individuals employed in jobs requiring product promotion were less trusting than individuals employed in other jobs—particularly jobs in which honesty is highly expected
Mandates of Dishonesty: The Psychological and Social Costs of Mandated Attitude Expression. Marko Pitesa, Zen Goh, Stefan Thau. Organization Science, https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2017.1190
Abstract: This paper explains and tests empirically why people employed in product promotion are less willing to trust others. Product promotion is a prototypical setting in which employees are mandated to express attitudes that are often not fully sincere. On the basis of social projection theory, we predicted that organizational agents mandated to express insincere attitudes project their self-perceived dishonesty onto others and thus become more distrustful. An initial large-scale, multi-country field study found that individuals employed in jobs requiring product promotion were less trusting than individuals employed in other jobs—particularly jobs in which honesty is highly expected. We then conducted two experiments in which people were tasked with promoting low-quality products and either were allowed to be honest or were asked to be positive (as would be expected of most salespeople). We found that mandated attitude expression reduced willingness to trust, and this effect was mediated by a decrease in the perceived honesty of the self, which, in turn, reduced the perceived honesty of other people. Our research suggests that the widely used practice of mandating attitude expression has the effect of undermining an essential ingredient of economic functioning—trust.
Keywords: trust; mandated attitude expression; product promotion; social projection
Abstract: This paper explains and tests empirically why people employed in product promotion are less willing to trust others. Product promotion is a prototypical setting in which employees are mandated to express attitudes that are often not fully sincere. On the basis of social projection theory, we predicted that organizational agents mandated to express insincere attitudes project their self-perceived dishonesty onto others and thus become more distrustful. An initial large-scale, multi-country field study found that individuals employed in jobs requiring product promotion were less trusting than individuals employed in other jobs—particularly jobs in which honesty is highly expected. We then conducted two experiments in which people were tasked with promoting low-quality products and either were allowed to be honest or were asked to be positive (as would be expected of most salespeople). We found that mandated attitude expression reduced willingness to trust, and this effect was mediated by a decrease in the perceived honesty of the self, which, in turn, reduced the perceived honesty of other people. Our research suggests that the widely used practice of mandating attitude expression has the effect of undermining an essential ingredient of economic functioning—trust.
Keywords: trust; mandated attitude expression; product promotion; social projection
Is self-promotion evaluated more positively if it is accurate? It is, but modest claims are evaluated even more positively than self-promotional claims
Is self-promotion evaluated more positively if it is accurate? Reexamining the role of accuracy and modesty on the perception of self-promotion. Erin M. O’Mara, Benjamin R. Kunz, Angela Receveur & Sierra Corbin. Self and Identity, https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2018.1465846
Abstract: The present research sought to conceptually replicate and extend previous research showing that accurate self-promotional claims were associated with more favorable interpersonal evaluations than inaccurate claims, but that modest self-claims were evaluated most favorably. Across two experiments we found consistent evidence that a self-promotional claim paired with information that substantiates the claim is associated with more favorable interpersonal evaluations compared to when the claim is unsubstantiated. Despite proposed generational increases in narcissism and public venues for self-promotion, we found that that modest claims are evaluated even more positively than self-promotional claims. The discussion emphasizes the contribution of these findings to an understanding of the consequences of self-promotion.
Keywords: Self-promotion, modesty, self-enhancement, self-superiority, impression management
Abstract: The present research sought to conceptually replicate and extend previous research showing that accurate self-promotional claims were associated with more favorable interpersonal evaluations than inaccurate claims, but that modest self-claims were evaluated most favorably. Across two experiments we found consistent evidence that a self-promotional claim paired with information that substantiates the claim is associated with more favorable interpersonal evaluations compared to when the claim is unsubstantiated. Despite proposed generational increases in narcissism and public venues for self-promotion, we found that that modest claims are evaluated even more positively than self-promotional claims. The discussion emphasizes the contribution of these findings to an understanding of the consequences of self-promotion.
Keywords: Self-promotion, modesty, self-enhancement, self-superiority, impression management
Status threat, not economic hardship, explains the 2016 presidential vote
Status threat, not economic hardship, explains the 2016 presidential vote. Diana C. Mutz. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, April 23, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718155115
Significance: Support for Donald J. Trump in the 2016 election was widely attributed to citizens who were “left behind” economically. These claims were based on the strong cross-sectional relationship between Trump support and lacking a college education. Using a representative panel from 2012 to 2016, I find that change in financial wellbeing had little impact on candidate preference. Instead, changing preferences were related to changes in the party’s positions on issues related to American global dominance and the rise of a majority–minority America: issues that threaten white Americans’ sense of dominant group status. Results highlight the importance of looking beyond theories emphasizing changes in issue salience to better understand the meaning of election outcomes when public preferences and candidates’ positions are changing.
Abstract: This study evaluates evidence pertaining to popular narratives explaining the American public’s support for Donald J. Trump in the 2016 presidential election. First, using unique representative probability samples of the American public, tracking the same individuals from 2012 to 2016, I examine the “left behind” thesis (that is, the theory that those who lost jobs or experienced stagnant wages due to the loss of manufacturing jobs punished the incumbent party for their economic misfortunes). Second, I consider the possibility that status threat felt by the dwindling proportion of traditionally high-status Americans (i.e., whites, Christians, and men) as well as by those who perceive America’s global dominance as threatened combined to increase support for the candidate who emphasized reestablishing status hierarchies of the past. Results do not support an interpretation of the election based on pocketbook economic concerns. Instead, the shorter relative distance of people’s own views from the Republican candidate on trade and China corresponded to greater mass support for Trump in 2016 relative to Mitt Romney in 2012. Candidate preferences in 2016 reflected increasing anxiety among high-status groups rather than complaints about past treatment among low-status groups. Both growing domestic racial diversity and globalization contributed to a sense that white Americans are under siege by these engines of change.
Significance: Support for Donald J. Trump in the 2016 election was widely attributed to citizens who were “left behind” economically. These claims were based on the strong cross-sectional relationship between Trump support and lacking a college education. Using a representative panel from 2012 to 2016, I find that change in financial wellbeing had little impact on candidate preference. Instead, changing preferences were related to changes in the party’s positions on issues related to American global dominance and the rise of a majority–minority America: issues that threaten white Americans’ sense of dominant group status. Results highlight the importance of looking beyond theories emphasizing changes in issue salience to better understand the meaning of election outcomes when public preferences and candidates’ positions are changing.
Abstract: This study evaluates evidence pertaining to popular narratives explaining the American public’s support for Donald J. Trump in the 2016 presidential election. First, using unique representative probability samples of the American public, tracking the same individuals from 2012 to 2016, I examine the “left behind” thesis (that is, the theory that those who lost jobs or experienced stagnant wages due to the loss of manufacturing jobs punished the incumbent party for their economic misfortunes). Second, I consider the possibility that status threat felt by the dwindling proportion of traditionally high-status Americans (i.e., whites, Christians, and men) as well as by those who perceive America’s global dominance as threatened combined to increase support for the candidate who emphasized reestablishing status hierarchies of the past. Results do not support an interpretation of the election based on pocketbook economic concerns. Instead, the shorter relative distance of people’s own views from the Republican candidate on trade and China corresponded to greater mass support for Trump in 2016 relative to Mitt Romney in 2012. Candidate preferences in 2016 reflected increasing anxiety among high-status groups rather than complaints about past treatment among low-status groups. Both growing domestic racial diversity and globalization contributed to a sense that white Americans are under siege by these engines of change.
Subjective well-being across education levels: More educated people require better circumstances to be equally satisfied, and as expectations are met the net effect on life satisfaction is negligible
Great Expectations: Education and Subjective Wellbeing. Ingebjørg Kristoffersen. Journal of Economic Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2018.04.005
Highlights
• The study investigates subjective wellbeing across education levels.
• A novel method is used to capture and decompose these differences.
• More educated people require better circumstances to be equally satisfied.
• As expectations are met the net effect on life satisfaction is negligible.
• Different results emerge within specific domains of life.
Abstract: This paper examines the association between education and subjective wellbeing. The evidence on this relationship is scarce, inconsistent and poorly understood, and reports of a negative association are common. Such results may appear counter-intuitive, but are in fact consistent with the idea that education is associated with higher expectations with respect to life circumstances. Consequently, education may be associated with greater subjective wellbeing only insofar as the ability to meet (or exceed) expectations is improved. This paper uses panel data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey to evaluate the evidence for differences in reference points across education levels, and to determine the overall association between education and subjective wellbeing. The results of the analysis confirm moderate rightward drifts across education levels for satisfaction with life in general, which are ‘neutralised’ by observed differences in actual circumstances. Other patterns emerge within specific life domains. Positive overall associations are observed for satisfaction with financial circumstances and health, while negative overall associations are observed for satisfaction with work and the amount of leisure time.
Keywords: Education; Subjective Wellbeing; Happiness; Satisfaction; Expectations; Adaptation
Highlights
• The study investigates subjective wellbeing across education levels.
• A novel method is used to capture and decompose these differences.
• More educated people require better circumstances to be equally satisfied.
• As expectations are met the net effect on life satisfaction is negligible.
• Different results emerge within specific domains of life.
Abstract: This paper examines the association between education and subjective wellbeing. The evidence on this relationship is scarce, inconsistent and poorly understood, and reports of a negative association are common. Such results may appear counter-intuitive, but are in fact consistent with the idea that education is associated with higher expectations with respect to life circumstances. Consequently, education may be associated with greater subjective wellbeing only insofar as the ability to meet (or exceed) expectations is improved. This paper uses panel data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey to evaluate the evidence for differences in reference points across education levels, and to determine the overall association between education and subjective wellbeing. The results of the analysis confirm moderate rightward drifts across education levels for satisfaction with life in general, which are ‘neutralised’ by observed differences in actual circumstances. Other patterns emerge within specific life domains. Positive overall associations are observed for satisfaction with financial circumstances and health, while negative overall associations are observed for satisfaction with work and the amount of leisure time.
Keywords: Education; Subjective Wellbeing; Happiness; Satisfaction; Expectations; Adaptation
Wednesday, April 25, 2018
Issues such as how much inequality of income to tolerate, or how much pollution to tolerate, represent issues of clashing values, not the inability to process information, nor the lack of information, nor the failure to show wisdom
How to Think Rationally about World Problems. Keith E. Stanovich. Journal of Intelligence 2018, 6(2), 25; doi:10.3390/jintelligence6020025.
Abstract: I agree with the target essay that psychology has something to offer in helping to address societal problems. Intelligence has helped meliorate some social problems throughout history, including the period of time that is covered by the Flynn effect, but I agree with Sternberg that other psychological characteristics may be contributing as well, particularly increases in rationality. I also believe that increasing human rationality could have a variety of positive societal affects at levels somewhat smaller in grain size than the societal problems that Sternberg focuses on. Some of the societal problems that Sternberg lists, however, I do not think would be remedied by increases in rationality, intelligence, or wisdom, because remedy might be the wrong word in the context of these issues. Issues such as how much inequality of income to tolerate, how much pollution to tolerate, and how much we should sacrifice economic growth for potential future changes in global temperature represent issues of clashing values, not the inability to process information, nor the lack of information, nor the failure to show wisdom.
Keywords: rationality; intelligence; world problems; meliorism
Check also:
In self-judgment, the "best option illusion" leads to Dunning-Kruger (failure to recognize our own incompetence). In social judgment, it leads to the Cassandra quandary (failure to identify when another person’s competence exceeds our own): The best option illusion in self and social assessment. David Dunning. Self and Identity, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/04/in-self-judgment-best-option-illusion.html
People are more inaccurate when forecasting their own future prospects than when forecasting others, in part the result of biased visual experience. People orient visual attention and resolve visual ambiguity in ways that support self-interests: "Visual experience in self and social judgment: How a biased majority claim a superior minority." Emily Balcetis & Stephanie A. Cardenas. Self and Identity, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/04/people-are-more-inaccurate-when.html
Can we change our biased minds? Michael Gross. Current Biology, Volume 27, Issue 20, 23 October 2017, Pages R1089–R1091. https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/can-we-change-our-biased-minds.html
People believe that future others' preferences and beliefs will change to align with their own:
Kahan, Dan M. and Landrum, Asheley and Carpenter, Katie and Helft, Laura and Jamieson, Kathleen Hall, Science Curiosity and Political Information Processing (August 1, 2016). Advances in Political Psychology, Forthcoming; Yale Law & Economics Research Paper No. 561. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2816803
The Partisan Brain: An Identity-Based Model of Political Belief. Jay J. Van Bavel, Andrea Pereira. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/02/the-tribal-nature-of-human-mind-leads.html
The Parties in our Heads: Misperceptions About Party Composition and Their Consequences. Douglas J. Ahler, Gaurav Sood. Aug 2017, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/01/we-tend-to-considerably-overestimate.html
The echo chamber is overstated: the moderating effect of political interest and diverse media. Elizabeth Dubois & Grant Blank. Information, Communication & Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/01/the-echo-chamber-is-overstated.html
Processing political misinformation: comprehending the Trump phenomenon. Briony Swire, Adam J. Berinsky, Stephan Lewandowsky, Ullrich K. H. Ecker. Royal Society Open Science, published on-line March 01 2017. DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160802, http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/3/160802
Competing cues: Older adults rely on knowledge in the face of fluency. By Brashier, Nadia M.; Umanath, Sharda; Cabeza, Roberto; Marsh, Elizabeth J. Psychology and Aging, Vol 32(4), Jun 2017, 331-337. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/07/competing-cues-older-adults-rely-on.html
Stanley, M. L., Dougherty, A. M., Yang, B. W., Henne, P., & De Brigard, F. (2017). Reasons Probably Won’t Change Your Mind: The Role of Reasons in Revising Moral Decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/reasons-probably-wont-change-your-mind.html
Science Denial Across the Political Divide — Liberals and Conservatives Are Similarly Motivated to Deny Attitude-Inconsistent Science. Anthony N. Washburn, Linda J. Skitka. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10.1177/1948550617731500. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/liberals-and-conservatives-are.html
Biased Policy Professionals. Sheheryar Banuri, Stefan Dercon, and Varun Gauri. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 8113. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/biased-policy-professionals-world-bank.html
Dispelling the Myth: Training in Education or Neuroscience Decreases but Does Not Eliminate Beliefs in Neuromyths. Kelly Macdonald et al. Frontiers in Psychology, Aug 10 2017. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/training-in-education-or-neuroscience.html
Individuals with greater science literacy and education have more polarized beliefs on controversial science topics. Caitlin Drummond and Baruch Fischhoff. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 114 no. 36, pp 9587–9592, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1704882114, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/individuals-with-greater-science.html
Expert ability can actually impair the accuracy of expert perception when judging others' performance: Adaptation and fallibility in experts' judgments of novice performers. By Larson, J. S., & Billeter, D. M. (2017). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(2), 271–288. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/06/expert-ability-can-actually-impair.html
Public Perceptions of Partisan Selective Exposure. Perryman, Mallory R. The University of Wisconsin - Madison, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2017. 10607943. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/citizens-believe-others-especially.html
The Myth of Partisan Selective Exposure: A Portrait of the Online Political News Audience. Jacob L. Nelson, and James G. Webster. Social Media + Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/the-myth-of-partisan-selective-exposure.html
Echo Chamber? What Echo Chamber? Reviewing the Evidence. Axel Bruns. Future of Journalism 2017 Conference. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/echo-chamber-what-echo-chamber.html
Fake news and post-truth pronouncements in general and in early human development. Victor Grech. Early Human Development, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/fake-news-and-post-truth-pronouncements.html
Consumption of fake news is a consequence, not a cause of their readers’ voting preferences. Kahan, Dan M., Misinformation and Identity-Protective Cognition (October 2, 2017). Social Science Research Network, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/consumption-of-fake-news-is-consequence.html
Abstract: I agree with the target essay that psychology has something to offer in helping to address societal problems. Intelligence has helped meliorate some social problems throughout history, including the period of time that is covered by the Flynn effect, but I agree with Sternberg that other psychological characteristics may be contributing as well, particularly increases in rationality. I also believe that increasing human rationality could have a variety of positive societal affects at levels somewhat smaller in grain size than the societal problems that Sternberg focuses on. Some of the societal problems that Sternberg lists, however, I do not think would be remedied by increases in rationality, intelligence, or wisdom, because remedy might be the wrong word in the context of these issues. Issues such as how much inequality of income to tolerate, how much pollution to tolerate, and how much we should sacrifice economic growth for potential future changes in global temperature represent issues of clashing values, not the inability to process information, nor the lack of information, nor the failure to show wisdom.
Keywords: rationality; intelligence; world problems; meliorism
Check also:
In self-judgment, the "best option illusion" leads to Dunning-Kruger (failure to recognize our own incompetence). In social judgment, it leads to the Cassandra quandary (failure to identify when another person’s competence exceeds our own): The best option illusion in self and social assessment. David Dunning. Self and Identity, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/04/in-self-judgment-best-option-illusion.html
People are more inaccurate when forecasting their own future prospects than when forecasting others, in part the result of biased visual experience. People orient visual attention and resolve visual ambiguity in ways that support self-interests: "Visual experience in self and social judgment: How a biased majority claim a superior minority." Emily Balcetis & Stephanie A. Cardenas. Self and Identity, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/04/people-are-more-inaccurate-when.html
Can we change our biased minds? Michael Gross. Current Biology, Volume 27, Issue 20, 23 October 2017, Pages R1089–R1091. https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/can-we-change-our-biased-minds.html
People believe that future others' preferences and beliefs will change to align with their own:
The Belief in a Favorable Future. Todd Rogers, Don Moore and Michael Norton. Psychological Science, Volume 28, issue 9, page(s): 1290-1301, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/people-believe-that-future-others.html
Kahan, Dan M. and Landrum, Asheley and Carpenter, Katie and Helft, Laura and Jamieson, Kathleen Hall, Science Curiosity and Political Information Processing (August 1, 2016). Advances in Political Psychology, Forthcoming; Yale Law & Economics Research Paper No. 561. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2816803
Abstract: This paper describes evidence suggesting that science curiosity counteracts politically biased information processing. This finding is in tension with two bodies of research. The first casts doubt on the existence of “curiosity” as a measurable disposition. The other suggests that individual differences in cognition related to science comprehension - of which science curiosity, if it exists, would presumably be one - do not mitigate politically biased information processing but instead aggravate it. The paper describes the scale-development strategy employed to overcome the problems associated with measuring science curiosity. It also reports data, observational and experimental, showing that science curiosity promotes open-minded engagement with information that is contrary to individuals’ political predispositions. We conclude by identifying a series of concrete research questions posed by these results.Facebook news and (de)polarization: reinforcing spirals in the 2016 US election. Michael A. Beam, Myiah J. Hutchens & Jay D. Hmielowski. Information, Communication & Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/03/our-results-also-showed-that-facebook.html
The Partisan Brain: An Identity-Based Model of Political Belief. Jay J. Van Bavel, Andrea Pereira. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/02/the-tribal-nature-of-human-mind-leads.html
The Parties in our Heads: Misperceptions About Party Composition and Their Consequences. Douglas J. Ahler, Gaurav Sood. Aug 2017, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/01/we-tend-to-considerably-overestimate.html
The echo chamber is overstated: the moderating effect of political interest and diverse media. Elizabeth Dubois & Grant Blank. Information, Communication & Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/01/the-echo-chamber-is-overstated.html
Processing political misinformation: comprehending the Trump phenomenon. Briony Swire, Adam J. Berinsky, Stephan Lewandowsky, Ullrich K. H. Ecker. Royal Society Open Science, published on-line March 01 2017. DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160802, http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/3/160802
Competing cues: Older adults rely on knowledge in the face of fluency. By Brashier, Nadia M.; Umanath, Sharda; Cabeza, Roberto; Marsh, Elizabeth J. Psychology and Aging, Vol 32(4), Jun 2017, 331-337. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/07/competing-cues-older-adults-rely-on.html
Stanley, M. L., Dougherty, A. M., Yang, B. W., Henne, P., & De Brigard, F. (2017). Reasons Probably Won’t Change Your Mind: The Role of Reasons in Revising Moral Decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/reasons-probably-wont-change-your-mind.html
Science Denial Across the Political Divide — Liberals and Conservatives Are Similarly Motivated to Deny Attitude-Inconsistent Science. Anthony N. Washburn, Linda J. Skitka. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10.1177/1948550617731500. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/liberals-and-conservatives-are.html
Biased Policy Professionals. Sheheryar Banuri, Stefan Dercon, and Varun Gauri. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 8113. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/biased-policy-professionals-world-bank.html
Dispelling the Myth: Training in Education or Neuroscience Decreases but Does Not Eliminate Beliefs in Neuromyths. Kelly Macdonald et al. Frontiers in Psychology, Aug 10 2017. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/training-in-education-or-neuroscience.html
Individuals with greater science literacy and education have more polarized beliefs on controversial science topics. Caitlin Drummond and Baruch Fischhoff. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 114 no. 36, pp 9587–9592, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1704882114, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/individuals-with-greater-science.html
Expert ability can actually impair the accuracy of expert perception when judging others' performance: Adaptation and fallibility in experts' judgments of novice performers. By Larson, J. S., & Billeter, D. M. (2017). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(2), 271–288. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/06/expert-ability-can-actually-impair.html
Public Perceptions of Partisan Selective Exposure. Perryman, Mallory R. The University of Wisconsin - Madison, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2017. 10607943. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/citizens-believe-others-especially.html
The Myth of Partisan Selective Exposure: A Portrait of the Online Political News Audience. Jacob L. Nelson, and James G. Webster. Social Media + Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/the-myth-of-partisan-selective-exposure.html
Echo Chamber? What Echo Chamber? Reviewing the Evidence. Axel Bruns. Future of Journalism 2017 Conference. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/echo-chamber-what-echo-chamber.html
Fake news and post-truth pronouncements in general and in early human development. Victor Grech. Early Human Development, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/fake-news-and-post-truth-pronouncements.html
Consumption of fake news is a consequence, not a cause of their readers’ voting preferences. Kahan, Dan M., Misinformation and Identity-Protective Cognition (October 2, 2017). Social Science Research Network, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/consumption-of-fake-news-is-consequence.html
In self-judgment, the "best option illusion" leads to Dunning-Kruger (failure to recognize our own incompetence). In social judgment, it leads to the Cassandra quandary (failure to identify when another person’s competence exceeds our own)
The best option illusion in self and social assessment. David Dunning. Self and Identity, https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2018.1465460
Abstract: I discuss the best option illusion, the tendency for people to select what they believe is the most reasonable option when solving problems or deciding on a course of action. Such a strategy is straightforward, sensible and difficult to quibble with, but occasionally the seemingly best option turns out to be anything but—leading to systematic errors and problems that must be identified, addressed, and managed. Specifically, people are more likely to be surprised in a negative direction than a positive one, give themselves positive credit for wrong answers, and stick to their answers far more than they should after exposure to contrary evidence. In self-judgment, the illusion leads to the Dunning-Kruger effect, in which people fail to recognize their own incompetence. In social judgment, it leads to the Cassandra quandary, in which people fail to identify when another person’s competence exceeds their own.
Keywords: Self-assessment, confidence, overconfidence, Dunning-Kruger effect, social judgment
---
The Cassandra bias is that people often have adequate expertise to accurately recognize true incompetence among their peers, in that the competence of anyone who chooses differently from the self is suspect. However, people fail to have adequate expertise to reliably identify peers who demonstrate superior experience. In short, when highly competent people choose differently from the self, those differences are, again, read as potential incompetence when they really reflect the exact opposite (Dunning, 2018c). In sum, people often lack the competence necessary to recognize competence or excellence that outstrips their own. They fail to have the virtuosity necessary to recognize a true virtuoso. As Sir Arthur Conan Doyle put it, in the guise of his famous character Sherlock Holmes, mediocrity recognizes nothing above itself. As a consequence, the best and the brightest often hide in plain sight.
In recent work, we have shown that Sir Arthur Conan Doyle is right. Study participants take tests in logical reasoning, numerical reasoning, financial literacy, or chess expertise, for example, and then are asked to assess the performances of other people chosen to represent gross incompetence to perfect skill. Respondents are relatively good at judging poor performers, overestimating the performance of the worst two performers they see by roughly 15%. However, they underestimate the top two performers they see by almost twice that—29% (Dunning & Cone, 2018). The degree of this underestimation was so profound that if converted to a metaphorical IQ scale, the very top performer in each study is judged to be operating at only an IQ of 104 for that particular skill, when in fact that person operates at a skill-specific level near a “genius” IQ of 134.
Participants in these studies also have more difficulty identifying top performers than bottom ones. In a study about financial literacy, participants were asked which of their peers they would approach for financial advice. Participants chose the person with a perfect score on a financial literacy quiz only 29% of the time, whereas they correctly identified the worst performer as the one to avoid 43% of the time. In another study, participants were asked to spot the worst or the best performer out of a group of three individuals. The skill was “global literacy,” and the peers being judged had completed a 12-item quiz on world affairs.Participants were quite good at spotting bad performers. When looking over a group in which two people scored 5 of the quiz and the last scored only 1, participants accurately identified the worst performer roughly 72% of the time. However, when the task was spotting the good performer, an entirely different picture emerged. When looking over a group in which one person had scored 11 on the quiz and the other two only 7, participants accurately identified the best performer only 25% of the time (Dunning & Cone, 2018).
[...]
But the most ironic set of judgments came from the study done on chess, which examined what could happen when the Cassandra quandary runs up against the Dunning-Kruger effect. High expert participants, those who did well on a quiz about chess strategy and also sported the highest official United States Chess Federation ratings, seemed largely sensible in their judgments about peers they could beat. When they looked over a peer who had done horribly on the chess quiz, they were absolutely certain they could beat that peer, but were only 50–50 about whether they could beat a peer who aced the quiz. Low expert participants, however, provided a set of estimates that did not seem so reasonable. They were only 60% sure they could beat the worst performing peer, but 70% sure they could beat the peer who aced the quiz. In short, they were more confident they could beat a peer showing a near grandmaster mind than did other participants who actually knew a good deal about chess (Dunning & Cone, 2018).
Check also
People are more inaccurate when forecasting their own future prospects than when forecasting others, in part the result of biased visual experience. People orient visual attention and resolve visual ambiguity in ways that support self-interests: "Visual experience in self and social judgment: How a biased majority claim a superior minority." Emily Balcetis & Stephanie A. Cardenas. Self and Identity, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/04/people-are-more-inaccurate-when.html
Can we change our biased minds? Michael Gross. Current Biology, Volume 27, Issue 20, 23 October 2017, Pages R1089–R1091. https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/can-we-change-our-biased-minds.html
People believe that future others' preferences and beliefs will change to align with their own:
Kahan, Dan M. and Landrum, Asheley and Carpenter, Katie and Helft, Laura and Jamieson, Kathleen Hall, Science Curiosity and Political Information Processing (August 1, 2016). Advances in Political Psychology, Forthcoming; Yale Law & Economics Research Paper No. 561. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2816803
Facebook news and (de)polarization: reinforcing spirals in the 2016 US election. Michael A. Beam, Myiah J. Hutchens & Jay D. Hmielowski. Information, Communication & Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/03/our-results-also-showed-that-facebook.html
The Partisan Brain: An Identity-Based Model of Political Belief. Jay J. Van Bavel, Andrea Pereira. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/02/the-tribal-nature-of-human-mind-leads.html
The Parties in our Heads: Misperceptions About Party Composition and Their Consequences. Douglas J. Ahler, Gaurav Sood. Aug 2017, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/01/we-tend-to-considerably-overestimate.html
The echo chamber is overstated: the moderating effect of political interest and diverse media. Elizabeth Dubois & Grant Blank. Information, Communication & Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/01/the-echo-chamber-is-overstated.html
Processing political misinformation: comprehending the Trump phenomenon. Briony Swire, Adam J. Berinsky, Stephan Lewandowsky, Ullrich K. H. Ecker. Royal Society Open Science, published on-line March 01 2017. DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160802, http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/3/160802
Competing cues: Older adults rely on knowledge in the face of fluency. By Brashier, Nadia M.; Umanath, Sharda; Cabeza, Roberto; Marsh, Elizabeth J. Psychology and Aging, Vol 32(4), Jun 2017, 331-337. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/07/competing-cues-older-adults-rely-on.html
Stanley, M. L., Dougherty, A. M., Yang, B. W., Henne, P., & De Brigard, F. (2017). Reasons Probably Won’t Change Your Mind: The Role of Reasons in Revising Moral Decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/reasons-probably-wont-change-your-mind.html
Science Denial Across the Political Divide — Liberals and Conservatives Are Similarly Motivated to Deny Attitude-Inconsistent Science. Anthony N. Washburn, Linda J. Skitka. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10.1177/1948550617731500. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/liberals-and-conservatives-are.html
Biased Policy Professionals. Sheheryar Banuri, Stefan Dercon, and Varun Gauri. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 8113. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/biased-policy-professionals-world-bank.html
Dispelling the Myth: Training in Education or Neuroscience Decreases but Does Not Eliminate Beliefs in Neuromyths. Kelly Macdonald et al. Frontiers in Psychology, Aug 10 2017. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/training-in-education-or-neuroscience.html
Individuals with greater science literacy and education have more polarized beliefs on controversial science topics. Caitlin Drummond and Baruch Fischhoff. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 114 no. 36, pp 9587–9592, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1704882114, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/individuals-with-greater-science.html
Expert ability can actually impair the accuracy of expert perception when judging others' performance: Adaptation and fallibility in experts' judgments of novice performers. By Larson, J. S., & Billeter, D. M. (2017). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(2), 271–288. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/06/expert-ability-can-actually-impair.html
Public Perceptions of Partisan Selective Exposure. Perryman, Mallory R. The University of Wisconsin - Madison, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2017. 10607943. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/citizens-believe-others-especially.html
The Myth of Partisan Selective Exposure: A Portrait of the Online Political News Audience. Jacob L. Nelson, and James G. Webster. Social Media + Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/the-myth-of-partisan-selective-exposure.html
Echo Chamber? What Echo Chamber? Reviewing the Evidence. Axel Bruns. Future of Journalism 2017 Conference. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/echo-chamber-what-echo-chamber.html
Fake news and post-truth pronouncements in general and in early human development. Victor Grech. Early Human Development, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/fake-news-and-post-truth-pronouncements.html
Consumption of fake news is a consequence, not a cause of their readers’ voting preferences. Kahan, Dan M., Misinformation and Identity-Protective Cognition (October 2, 2017). Social Science Research Network, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/consumption-of-fake-news-is-consequence.html
Abstract: I discuss the best option illusion, the tendency for people to select what they believe is the most reasonable option when solving problems or deciding on a course of action. Such a strategy is straightforward, sensible and difficult to quibble with, but occasionally the seemingly best option turns out to be anything but—leading to systematic errors and problems that must be identified, addressed, and managed. Specifically, people are more likely to be surprised in a negative direction than a positive one, give themselves positive credit for wrong answers, and stick to their answers far more than they should after exposure to contrary evidence. In self-judgment, the illusion leads to the Dunning-Kruger effect, in which people fail to recognize their own incompetence. In social judgment, it leads to the Cassandra quandary, in which people fail to identify when another person’s competence exceeds their own.
Keywords: Self-assessment, confidence, overconfidence, Dunning-Kruger effect, social judgment
---
The Cassandra bias is that people often have adequate expertise to accurately recognize true incompetence among their peers, in that the competence of anyone who chooses differently from the self is suspect. However, people fail to have adequate expertise to reliably identify peers who demonstrate superior experience. In short, when highly competent people choose differently from the self, those differences are, again, read as potential incompetence when they really reflect the exact opposite (Dunning, 2018c). In sum, people often lack the competence necessary to recognize competence or excellence that outstrips their own. They fail to have the virtuosity necessary to recognize a true virtuoso. As Sir Arthur Conan Doyle put it, in the guise of his famous character Sherlock Holmes, mediocrity recognizes nothing above itself. As a consequence, the best and the brightest often hide in plain sight.
In recent work, we have shown that Sir Arthur Conan Doyle is right. Study participants take tests in logical reasoning, numerical reasoning, financial literacy, or chess expertise, for example, and then are asked to assess the performances of other people chosen to represent gross incompetence to perfect skill. Respondents are relatively good at judging poor performers, overestimating the performance of the worst two performers they see by roughly 15%. However, they underestimate the top two performers they see by almost twice that—29% (Dunning & Cone, 2018). The degree of this underestimation was so profound that if converted to a metaphorical IQ scale, the very top performer in each study is judged to be operating at only an IQ of 104 for that particular skill, when in fact that person operates at a skill-specific level near a “genius” IQ of 134.
Participants in these studies also have more difficulty identifying top performers than bottom ones. In a study about financial literacy, participants were asked which of their peers they would approach for financial advice. Participants chose the person with a perfect score on a financial literacy quiz only 29% of the time, whereas they correctly identified the worst performer as the one to avoid 43% of the time. In another study, participants were asked to spot the worst or the best performer out of a group of three individuals. The skill was “global literacy,” and the peers being judged had completed a 12-item quiz on world affairs.Participants were quite good at spotting bad performers. When looking over a group in which two people scored 5 of the quiz and the last scored only 1, participants accurately identified the worst performer roughly 72% of the time. However, when the task was spotting the good performer, an entirely different picture emerged. When looking over a group in which one person had scored 11 on the quiz and the other two only 7, participants accurately identified the best performer only 25% of the time (Dunning & Cone, 2018).
[...]
But the most ironic set of judgments came from the study done on chess, which examined what could happen when the Cassandra quandary runs up against the Dunning-Kruger effect. High expert participants, those who did well on a quiz about chess strategy and also sported the highest official United States Chess Federation ratings, seemed largely sensible in their judgments about peers they could beat. When they looked over a peer who had done horribly on the chess quiz, they were absolutely certain they could beat that peer, but were only 50–50 about whether they could beat a peer who aced the quiz. Low expert participants, however, provided a set of estimates that did not seem so reasonable. They were only 60% sure they could beat the worst performing peer, but 70% sure they could beat the peer who aced the quiz. In short, they were more confident they could beat a peer showing a near grandmaster mind than did other participants who actually knew a good deal about chess (Dunning & Cone, 2018).
Check also
People are more inaccurate when forecasting their own future prospects than when forecasting others, in part the result of biased visual experience. People orient visual attention and resolve visual ambiguity in ways that support self-interests: "Visual experience in self and social judgment: How a biased majority claim a superior minority." Emily Balcetis & Stephanie A. Cardenas. Self and Identity, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/04/people-are-more-inaccurate-when.html
Can we change our biased minds? Michael Gross. Current Biology, Volume 27, Issue 20, 23 October 2017, Pages R1089–R1091. https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/can-we-change-our-biased-minds.html
Summary: A simple test taken by millions of people reveals that virtually everybody has implicit biases that they are unaware of and that may clash with their explicit beliefs. From policing to scientific publishing, all activities that deal with people are at risk of making wrong decisions due to bias. Raising awareness is the first step towards improving the outcomes.
People believe that future others' preferences and beliefs will change to align with their own:
The Belief in a Favorable Future. Todd Rogers, Don Moore and Michael Norton. Psychological Science, Volume 28, issue 9, page(s): 1290-1301, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/people-believe-that-future-others.html
Kahan, Dan M. and Landrum, Asheley and Carpenter, Katie and Helft, Laura and Jamieson, Kathleen Hall, Science Curiosity and Political Information Processing (August 1, 2016). Advances in Political Psychology, Forthcoming; Yale Law & Economics Research Paper No. 561. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2816803
Abstract: This paper describes evidence suggesting that science curiosity counteracts politically biased information processing. This finding is in tension with two bodies of research. The first casts doubt on the existence of “curiosity” as a measurable disposition. The other suggests that individual differences in cognition related to science comprehension - of which science curiosity, if it exists, would presumably be one - do not mitigate politically biased information processing but instead aggravate it. The paper describes the scale-development strategy employed to overcome the problems associated with measuring science curiosity. It also reports data, observational and experimental, showing that science curiosity promotes open-minded engagement with information that is contrary to individuals’ political predispositions. We conclude by identifying a series of concrete research questions posed by these results.
Keywords: politically motivated reasoning, curiosity, science communication, risk perception
Facebook news and (de)polarization: reinforcing spirals in the 2016 US election. Michael A. Beam, Myiah J. Hutchens & Jay D. Hmielowski. Information, Communication & Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/03/our-results-also-showed-that-facebook.html
The Partisan Brain: An Identity-Based Model of Political Belief. Jay J. Van Bavel, Andrea Pereira. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/02/the-tribal-nature-of-human-mind-leads.html
The Parties in our Heads: Misperceptions About Party Composition and Their Consequences. Douglas J. Ahler, Gaurav Sood. Aug 2017, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/01/we-tend-to-considerably-overestimate.html
The echo chamber is overstated: the moderating effect of political interest and diverse media. Elizabeth Dubois & Grant Blank. Information, Communication & Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/01/the-echo-chamber-is-overstated.html
Processing political misinformation: comprehending the Trump phenomenon. Briony Swire, Adam J. Berinsky, Stephan Lewandowsky, Ullrich K. H. Ecker. Royal Society Open Science, published on-line March 01 2017. DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160802, http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/3/160802
Competing cues: Older adults rely on knowledge in the face of fluency. By Brashier, Nadia M.; Umanath, Sharda; Cabeza, Roberto; Marsh, Elizabeth J. Psychology and Aging, Vol 32(4), Jun 2017, 331-337. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/07/competing-cues-older-adults-rely-on.html
Stanley, M. L., Dougherty, A. M., Yang, B. W., Henne, P., & De Brigard, F. (2017). Reasons Probably Won’t Change Your Mind: The Role of Reasons in Revising Moral Decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/reasons-probably-wont-change-your-mind.html
Science Denial Across the Political Divide — Liberals and Conservatives Are Similarly Motivated to Deny Attitude-Inconsistent Science. Anthony N. Washburn, Linda J. Skitka. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10.1177/1948550617731500. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/liberals-and-conservatives-are.html
Biased Policy Professionals. Sheheryar Banuri, Stefan Dercon, and Varun Gauri. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 8113. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/biased-policy-professionals-world-bank.html
Dispelling the Myth: Training in Education or Neuroscience Decreases but Does Not Eliminate Beliefs in Neuromyths. Kelly Macdonald et al. Frontiers in Psychology, Aug 10 2017. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/08/training-in-education-or-neuroscience.html
Individuals with greater science literacy and education have more polarized beliefs on controversial science topics. Caitlin Drummond and Baruch Fischhoff. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 114 no. 36, pp 9587–9592, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1704882114, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/individuals-with-greater-science.html
Expert ability can actually impair the accuracy of expert perception when judging others' performance: Adaptation and fallibility in experts' judgments of novice performers. By Larson, J. S., & Billeter, D. M. (2017). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(2), 271–288. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/06/expert-ability-can-actually-impair.html
Public Perceptions of Partisan Selective Exposure. Perryman, Mallory R. The University of Wisconsin - Madison, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2017. 10607943. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/citizens-believe-others-especially.html
The Myth of Partisan Selective Exposure: A Portrait of the Online Political News Audience. Jacob L. Nelson, and James G. Webster. Social Media + Society, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/the-myth-of-partisan-selective-exposure.html
Echo Chamber? What Echo Chamber? Reviewing the Evidence. Axel Bruns. Future of Journalism 2017 Conference. http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/echo-chamber-what-echo-chamber.html
Fake news and post-truth pronouncements in general and in early human development. Victor Grech. Early Human Development, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/09/fake-news-and-post-truth-pronouncements.html
Consumption of fake news is a consequence, not a cause of their readers’ voting preferences. Kahan, Dan M., Misinformation and Identity-Protective Cognition (October 2, 2017). Social Science Research Network, http://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/10/consumption-of-fake-news-is-consequence.html
People are more inaccurate when forecasting their own future prospects than when forecasting others, in part the result of biased visual experience. People orient visual attention and resolve visual ambiguity in ways that support self-interests
Visual experience in self and social judgment: How a biased majority claim a superior minority. Emily Balcetis & Stephanie A. Cardenas. Self and Identity, https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2018.1466724
Abstract: People form beliefs of their own superiority relative to others to degrees that are implausible and statistically impossible. Is this the result of error in self or social judgment? We review evidence suggesting that people are more inaccurate when forecasting their own future prospects than when forecasting others. Moreover, we argue that such error when acting as a self rather than social psychologist is in part the result of biased visual experience. People orient visual attention and resolve visual ambiguity in ways that support self-interests. Because visual experience serves as one of the foundational stages of information processing, bias that emerges as people look at the world around them may propagate biased cognitive judgment without individuals’ awareness of the presence or source of such bias. Motivated cognition may in part be the result of motivated perception.
Keywords: Motivated cognition, self and social judgment, social perception, attention, ambiguity
Abstract: People form beliefs of their own superiority relative to others to degrees that are implausible and statistically impossible. Is this the result of error in self or social judgment? We review evidence suggesting that people are more inaccurate when forecasting their own future prospects than when forecasting others. Moreover, we argue that such error when acting as a self rather than social psychologist is in part the result of biased visual experience. People orient visual attention and resolve visual ambiguity in ways that support self-interests. Because visual experience serves as one of the foundational stages of information processing, bias that emerges as people look at the world around them may propagate biased cognitive judgment without individuals’ awareness of the presence or source of such bias. Motivated cognition may in part be the result of motivated perception.
Keywords: Motivated cognition, self and social judgment, social perception, attention, ambiguity
Differential Parenting and Authoritarianism: Unravelling Quasi‐Causal Environmental Effects via Phenotypic and Genetically Informed Multi‐Rater Models
Unravelling Quasi‐Causal Environmental Effects via Phenotypic and Genetically Informed Multi‐Rater Models: The Case of Differential Parenting and Authoritarianism. Alexandra Zapko‐Willmes, Rainer Riemann, Christian Kandler. European Journal of Personality, https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2144
Abstract: This study investigated the association between different experiences of parenting and individual right‐wing authoritarianism (RWA) using twin family data comprising self‐ and informant reports. We applied a design that allowed us to examine whether the link between retrospective assessments of parenting and current RWA is effectively environmental or whether the association is attributable to genetic influences. We hypothesized that an authoritarian parenting style (low responsiveness and high demandingness) provided by the parents is associated with higher offspring's RWA, and that this association is similar for both twin siblings as a function of their genetic relatedness and shared familial experiences—that is, genotype–environment correlation. A sample of 875 twins as well as 319 mothers and 268 fathers completed a questionnaire on twins' parental environment and their own authoritarian attitudes. Additionally, 1322 well‐informed peers assessed twins' RWA. Applying structural equation modelling, we found twins' experiences of parental responsiveness and demandingness to be positively associated with self‐reported and peer‐reported RWA. The correlation between responsiveness and RWA was similar for both twins due to their genetic similarity, whereas twin differences in demandingness were positively associated with twin differences in RWA, indicating quasi‐causal environmental effects. Implications for the interdependence between parenting and RWA are discussed.
Abstract: This study investigated the association between different experiences of parenting and individual right‐wing authoritarianism (RWA) using twin family data comprising self‐ and informant reports. We applied a design that allowed us to examine whether the link between retrospective assessments of parenting and current RWA is effectively environmental or whether the association is attributable to genetic influences. We hypothesized that an authoritarian parenting style (low responsiveness and high demandingness) provided by the parents is associated with higher offspring's RWA, and that this association is similar for both twin siblings as a function of their genetic relatedness and shared familial experiences—that is, genotype–environment correlation. A sample of 875 twins as well as 319 mothers and 268 fathers completed a questionnaire on twins' parental environment and their own authoritarian attitudes. Additionally, 1322 well‐informed peers assessed twins' RWA. Applying structural equation modelling, we found twins' experiences of parental responsiveness and demandingness to be positively associated with self‐reported and peer‐reported RWA. The correlation between responsiveness and RWA was similar for both twins due to their genetic similarity, whereas twin differences in demandingness were positively associated with twin differences in RWA, indicating quasi‐causal environmental effects. Implications for the interdependence between parenting and RWA are discussed.
Three categories of monogamy maintenance strategies to avoid relationship threats are commonly used: Proactive Avoidance (of attractive alternatives), Relationship Enhancement, and Low Self‐Monitoring and Derogation (in the face of extradyadic attraction). Not very successfully...
Ain’t misbehavin? Monogamy maintenance strategies in heterosexual romantic relationships. Brenda H. Lee, Lucia F. O'Sullivan. Personal Relationships, https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12235
Abstract: Monogamy is a near universal expectation in intimate relationships in Western societies and is typically defined as sexual and romantic exclusivity to one partner. This research informs the paradox between monogamy intentions and high rates of infidelity. Monogamy maintenance (MM) strategies used in response to relationship threats posed by attraction to extradyadic others were identified and characterized. Across three samples, 741 U.S. adults in intimate relationships completed surveys addressing MM. Twenty‐four strategies emerged in three factors—Proactive Avoidance (of attractive alternatives), Relationship Enhancement, and Low Self‐Monitoring and Derogation (in the face of extradyadic attraction). All MM factors were commonly endorsed, yet were largely unsuccessful at forestalling infidelity.
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The derogation of attractive alternatives was included in the preliminary MMI [MM inventory] both in the form of outward behaviors that may be perceived as rude or socially disengaging (e.g., “Intentionally ignored the looks from this other person when they were looking at me”; “Treated this other person rudely”), and in the form of self-directed talk (e.g., “Told myself that this other person was bad for me”; “Looked for unflattering things in this other person”). These strategies were intentional extensions of previously identified automatic responses to attractive others in experimental contexts—namely, inattention and hostility (Maner et al., 2009; Plant et al., 2010). The outward strategies directed toward the attractive other were infrequently endorsed, indicating that although individuals may engage in stronger forms of derogation with fleeting relationship threats, they typically derogate attractive others in the form of selfdirected talk within the social contexts of their lives.
Check also Attentional and evaluative biases help people maintain relationships by avoiding infidelity. McNulty, James K., Meltzer, Andrea L., Makhanova, Anastasia, Maner, Jon K. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Feb 12 , 2018, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/02/attentional-and-evaluative-biases-help.html
Abstract: Monogamy is a near universal expectation in intimate relationships in Western societies and is typically defined as sexual and romantic exclusivity to one partner. This research informs the paradox between monogamy intentions and high rates of infidelity. Monogamy maintenance (MM) strategies used in response to relationship threats posed by attraction to extradyadic others were identified and characterized. Across three samples, 741 U.S. adults in intimate relationships completed surveys addressing MM. Twenty‐four strategies emerged in three factors—Proactive Avoidance (of attractive alternatives), Relationship Enhancement, and Low Self‐Monitoring and Derogation (in the face of extradyadic attraction). All MM factors were commonly endorsed, yet were largely unsuccessful at forestalling infidelity.
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The derogation of attractive alternatives was included in the preliminary MMI [MM inventory] both in the form of outward behaviors that may be perceived as rude or socially disengaging (e.g., “Intentionally ignored the looks from this other person when they were looking at me”; “Treated this other person rudely”), and in the form of self-directed talk (e.g., “Told myself that this other person was bad for me”; “Looked for unflattering things in this other person”). These strategies were intentional extensions of previously identified automatic responses to attractive others in experimental contexts—namely, inattention and hostility (Maner et al., 2009; Plant et al., 2010). The outward strategies directed toward the attractive other were infrequently endorsed, indicating that although individuals may engage in stronger forms of derogation with fleeting relationship threats, they typically derogate attractive others in the form of selfdirected talk within the social contexts of their lives.
Check also Attentional and evaluative biases help people maintain relationships by avoiding infidelity. McNulty, James K., Meltzer, Andrea L., Makhanova, Anastasia, Maner, Jon K. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Feb 12 , 2018, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/02/attentional-and-evaluative-biases-help.html
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