Monday, April 20, 2020

Major histocompatibility complex-associated odour preferences and human mate choice: near and far horizons

Major histocompatibility complex-associated odour preferences and human mate choice: near and far horizons. Jan Havlíček, Jamie Winternitz and S. Craig Roberts. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, April 20 2020. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0260

Abstract: The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a core part of the adaptive immune system. As in other vertebrate taxa, it may also affect human chemical communication via odour-based mate preferences, with greater attraction towards MHC-dissimilar partners. However, despite some well-known findings, the available evidence is equivocal and made complicated by varied approaches to quantifying human mate choice. To address this, we here conduct comprehensive meta-analyses focusing on studies assessing: (i) genomic mate selection, (ii) relationship satisfaction, (iii) odour preference, and (iv) all studies combined. Analysis of genomic studies reveals no association between MHC-dissimilarity and mate choice in actual couples; however, MHC effects appear to be independent of the genomic background. The effect of MHC-dissimilarity on relationship satisfaction was not significant, and we found evidence for publication bias in studies on this area. There was also no significant association between MHC-dissimilarity and odour preferences. Finally, combining effect sizes from all genomic, relationship satisfaction, odour preference and previous mate choice studies into an overall estimate showed no overall significant effect of MHC-similarity on human mate selection. Based on these findings, we make a set of recommendations for future studies, focusing both on aspects that should be implemented immediately and those that lurk on the far horizon. We need larger samples with greater geographical and cultural diversity that control for genome-wide similarity. We also need more focus on mechanisms of MHC-associated odour preferences and on MHC-associated pregnancy loss.


4. Discussion

(a) Meta-analyses

A recent meta-analysis on MHC-associated mate choice concluded that there is a consistent preference for MHC-heterozygous individuals [20]. By contrast, there was no systematic preference for MHC-dissimilarity. Here, we provide the results of further meta-analyses primarily focusing on genomic studies and relationship satisfaction, together with updated meta-analyses on odour preferences and human mate selection studies. Overall, the genomic studies show no significant association between MHC-similarity and mate choice in actual couples nor in mate preferences. However, we also found that the effect of MHC-similarity is independent of the genomic background. The overall effect of MHC-similarity on sexual satisfaction was not significant, but we found a negative association between MHC-similarity and sexual satisfaction in non-HC using women. Nevertheless, several lines of evidence for publication bias in studies investigating MHC-similarity and sexual satisfaction suggest that these results should be interpreted with caution. Furthermore, we found no significant effect of MHC-similarity on odour preferences among currently available studies. Finally, combining each of the effect sizes analysed above with previously extracted effect sizes for mate choice among couples into an overall estimate, showed no overall significant effect of MHC-similarity on human mate selection.

(b) Near horizons: issues arising from the meta-analyses

Our meta-analyses raise a number of pressing outstanding issues that should, and can be, addressed in future studies. Perhaps the strongest conclusion one can draw from the available data is that our knowledge is patchy across different populations. Even a brief inspection of figure 1 shows that most studies are based on populations of European ancestry; there is a notable absence or near-absence of data from two of the largest populations, China and India, from smaller populations in Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa, and from small-scale societies. Why is this important? First, individual populations vary considerably in cultural norms regarding the level of consanguinity [52]. In addition, while all populations show some amount of admixture, this tends to be higher in large-scale populations such as those from Western European or Eastern Asian complex societies [53]. Owing to high MHC polymorphism, mating with almost any unrelated individual would probably lead to a sufficient level of dissimilarity. It is thus possible that humans, as in other species [5456], tend to avoid individuals with high MHC-similarity, but show no systematic preference beyond a certain threshold (see [28] for a similar suggestion). However, large-scale populations are a relative novelty in human evolutionary history [57]; it is therefore of key importance to focus on small-scale societies with comparatively higher levels of inbreeding, which better reflect likely population structure during most of human evolution. To our knowledge, the only available study from small-scale societies comes from South Amerindian couples [58], which showed they were not significantly MHC dissimilar compared to random pairing. In that study, however, MHC typing was of relatively low sensitivity (serotyping of HLA-A and -B loci to the level of two-digit allele groups, no class II loci were recorded), sample size was too small to detect selection below a selection coefficient s = 0.45, and there is cultural promotion of cross-cousin marriages in some tribes [58].
Most previous studies have specifically targeted the MHC region, assuming that their findings are a consequence of selective processes in that region. While this is a reasonable assumption in view of MHC polymorphism and allele-specific associations with some diseases [811], apparent MHC-similar mate selection might be an epiphenomenon of more general population stratification (e.g. positive assortment [59]). In support of this, a recent meta-analysis found that MHC-similarity in couples was observed in ethnically heterogeneous, but not homogeneous, populations [20]. However, our new analysis of studies that control for genomic similarity shows that MHC-dissimilarity among couples is independent of genome-wide similarity (although the association is positive). In addition, the positive relationship detected between MHC effects (spouses versus permuted pairs) and the extremeness of the MHC within spouses indicates that observed MHC effects are relatively independent of socio-demographic processes that would affect spouses genome-wide. For example, if spouses were highly dissimilar at the MHC compared to randomly assigned mates, but had levels of MHC-similarity in line with the rest of the genome, we may conclude that the MHC does not play an independent role in mate choice and mate choice may be for inbreeding avoidance. But this was not what we observed.
The overall effect of MHC-associated mate selection was not significant but was restricted to some populations. In other words, we may observe MHC-associated preferences in some populations but not in others. For example, we found that Israeli individuals showed a significant preference for mates with higher levels of MHC-similarity. Dandine-Roulland et al. [29] contributed one of the three effect sizes to this result, and using principal component analysis detected genetic stratification, with clusters of samples lying between European and Middle Eastern populations. The two other effect sizes contributed by Israeli et al. [51] came from unmarried couples to determine paternity status and from married couples undergoing infertility treatment. The study did not specifically detail testing for population stratification, and it is likely that a random sample of the population would capture multiple ethnic groups, as Dandine-Roulland et al. [29] demonstrated. Thus, MHC-similarity preferences most likely reflect social homogamy in a genetically heterogeneous population. The Swiss individuals' significant preference for MHC-dissimilar odours was observed in the dataset without HC-using individual effects and included both female and male odour preferences. These MHC-dissimilar preferences might be related to relatively low levels of genetic variation and were specifically present in German-speaking cantons, perhaps as a consequence of geographical isolation in Alpine valleys [60]. By contrast, studies based on other European populations (such as in neighbouring Germany) did not report MHC-dissimilar preferences, emphasizing the need for investigations across diverse populations which differ in levels of genetic variation. For example, cultural practices vary related to body care. If body odour is a primary source of information about one's MHC profile, then practices such as armpit hair shaving and use of extrinsic fragrances or deodorants may impact perceptibility of MHC-associated odours. Although there is conjecture that fragrance selection may be linked to a wearer's own MHC [61,62], perhaps as a mechanism to complement body odour rather than cover it [63], we do not yet know how such cultural effects influence odour perceptibility and MHC-associated preference. Further, in cultures which idealize an ‘odourless human body’, it is considered inappropriate to overtly smell other people; under such circumstances, the effect of MHC-associated preferences might go unrealized. Clearly, our understanding of the interplay between cultural and biological evolution is far from complete, and MHC-associated mate choice is no exception.
Many cultures also practice various types of positive assortment such as ethnic, socio-economic, religious, and caste-based endogamy. Even within a single culture, mate choice is a multidimensional process based on a set of preferences for various traits which might not be linked to MHC, such as physical appearance, socio-economic status, personality, attitudes, age and many others [64,65]. Each of these may be prioritized over genotypic factors [66], including MHC. Furthermore, if positive assortment occurs for any trait with a genetic component, even subtle assortment on such traits might interfere with MHC-associated preferences.
Beyond actual mate choice, it remains possible that MHC-associated preferences exert effects on the quality of resulting relationships. Indeed, in a study of 48 couples, Garver-Apgar et al. [22] found that more MHC-similar couples report relatively lower sexual satisfaction. Subsequent investigations have recorded considerably larger sample sets [67,68]. Here, we quantitatively assessed these studies for a possible link between MHC-similarity and sexual satisfaction. The overall effect was not significant. However, in the subset of women not using HC, there was a negative association between MHC-similarity and sexual satisfaction: couples sharing fewer HLA alleles experienced greater sexual satisfaction. This pattern of results is consistent with the studies by Wedekind et al. [18] who found odour preferences for MHC-dissimilarity only in women not using HC, and by Roberts et al. [69,70] who report higher sexual satisfaction in women who did not use HC when they met their current partner. Nevertheless, the robustness of the HC-associated preferences was neither confirmed by a previous meta-analysis [20] nor in our updated analysis. There is another reason why the link between MHC-similarity and sexual satisfaction should be interpreted with extreme caution. The meta-analysis on relationship satisfaction found three different types of evidence for publication bias. First, there was a significant asymmetry in a funnel plot suggesting missing studies with a negative outcome, particularly those with small effect sizes. Second, there was a temporal effect suggesting the unequal distribution of the effect sizes over time; specifically, the initial study [22] found a considerably stronger effect than subsequent studies. Finally, studies with larger samples (i.e. having a higher power to detect possible effects) show significantly smaller effect sizes.

(c) Far horizons on major histocompatibility complex-associated mate choice

Beyond those issues raised above, we believe there are two further matters that require significant attention in the longer-term. The first of these concerns the generation of MHC-associated odours. Understanding this may be of fundamental interest in itself, but a clearer picture of the underlying mechanisms may also clarify how some cultural and contextual factors (e.g. fragrance use) affect odour variability. Several hypotheses have been proposed relating to interactions between MHC molecules and skin microflora, which produces volatile compounds that can subsequently be perceived. However, most evidence supports an idea that body odour is affected by antigen peptides bound by specific MHC molecules. It was first shown in mice that these peptides can be perceived by the vomeronasal organ [71]; however, subsequent research shows that the main olfactory system can perceive MHC peptide ligands via the olfactory epithelium [72]. MHC peptide ligands can be detected in mouse urine, although at very low concentration [73]. Evidence extends beyond mice, as sticklebacks prefer water enriched with MHC-dissimilar peptides [74]. So far, only one study addressed this mechanism in humans [75]. Two commercially available peptides were added to body odour samples, and neurophysiological responses were recorded using functional magnetic resonance imaging while participants attempted to recognize their own odour. The results showed a higher preference for odour samples enriched with peptides corresponding to the MHC of the smeller and activity in brain areas related to self-recognition. However, it is not clear whether the self-recognition paradigm can be simply generalized to mate preferences. More importantly, the study was criticized for not providing an explanation for the transduction mechanism, as peptide molecules are involatile and considerably larger than molecules usually perceived by smell [73,76,77]. Furthermore, it is also not clear whether the MHC-associated peptides are commonly present in human axillae or more generally on human skin.
A second area which requires more attention is the nature of potential selective benefits arising from MHC-associated mate choice. While it is usually assumed that MHC-preferences are a consequence of infection-driven selection, it might be alternatively (or additionally) driven by the probability of successful pregnancy. A foetus expresses paternal alloantigens which must be tolerated by the maternal immune system. It has been proposed that MHC allele-sharing between father and mother may lead to insufficient stimulation of the maternal immune system by paternal antigens—a factor that was expected to be important for maternal tolerance and inflammatory immune response—and thus decrease the chance of successful implantation [78]. Several studies suggest that MHC allele-sharing is associated with recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) [79,80], with a recent meta-analysis indicating that HLA-B and -DR are especially important [81]. However, these results should be viewed with caution because many studies used serological genotyping resolving only to allele groups, which may miss related alleles that are functionally different [82]. More critically, classical MHC class I and II proteins (except for HLA-C) are not expressed on the trophoblast, a part of conceptus which subsequently develops into the embryonic part of the placenta and is in direct contact with the maternal immune system. Researchers have, therefore, recently focused on classical HLA-C and non-classical MHC class Ib, which are expressed on the trophoblast. In contrast to previous studies, it was reported that a mismatch, i.e. not sharing, at HLA-C*07 between mother and father was related to a higher risk of RPL [83]. These authors also observed a higher incidence of HLA-C antibodies in RPL patients than in the controls. There is a growing body of evidence showing that HLA-E, -G, and to some extent also HLA-F, all play a key role in immunotolerance of the foetus by the maternal immune system in general and uterine NK cells in particular (for a review, see [3]). Some studies report higher RPL in women with the HLA-E*101 allele [84], although others find no difference in HLA-E polymorphism between controls and couples with RPL [85,86]. Most studies on non-classical MHC Ib polymorphism and its role in pregnancy disorders focused on HLA-G polymorphism. For example, it was reported that a 14 bp insertion HLA-G allele is associated with a smaller placenta and higher probability of RPL [87], although this may be restricted to cases with three and more abortions [88]. In summary, there appears to be some evidence that couples sharing alleles at HLA-B and -DR loci are at higher risk of reproductive failure. Although these genes are not expressed on the trophoblast, this might arise through linkage disequilibrium with other functionally important MHC genes. Moreover, there is inconsistency across studies in both the association between HLA-G and -E polymorphism and reproductive failures, perhaps partly owing to factors such as variation in the diagnosis of the RPL. More importantly, most existing studies on MHC polymorphism and reproductive problems focused solely on RPL, but MHC polymorphism might affect pregnancy success much earlier as HLA-C and -G expression can be detected even before implantation [89,90]. Because a vast majority of unsuccessful early pregnancies are not detected, this may, in turn, bias the results of studies that rely solely on RPL (i.e. recognizable spontaneous miscarriage).

(d) Suggestions for future studies

Above, we have discussed in detail the current state of knowledge on MHC-associated mate choice in light of results from our meta-analysis, that should inform approaches in the immediate future. We also commented on two important wider and relatively unexplored perspectives that lurk on the far horizon of this area of inquiry. In light of these, we here outline some recommendations for future work that we hope will help to ultimately clarify the extent to which MHC influences human mating. The suggestions (i–iii) highlight methodological issues, (iv–vi) focus on population- and culture-related questions, and (vii–x) stress several associated issues such as developmental and mechanistic questions.
(i)
Researchers should always perform a priori power analysis to obtain a sufficient sample size (see also [91]). Power analysis is becoming a standard procedure in other fields of behavioural research, but it is particularly needed here owing to both extreme variability in MHC genes and what appear to be, at best, small effect sizes.
(ii)
To provide more complex insights, future studies should control for genome-wide similarity. The same applies to studies on MHC-heterozygosity. Genomic studies further allow assessment of the overall level of inbreeding in the given population. This is an important issue as MHC-associated mate choice might play a role only in relatively inbred populations.
(iii)
Researchers should test for specificity of the MHC region. As was discussed above, without controlling for genome-wide level of similarity/heterozygosity, we cannot decide whether the observed effects are specific to the MHC region or whether we are dealing with more general phenomena.
(iv)
We urgently need more studies on populations of non-European descent, and particularly those with a relatively high level of inbreeding (e.g. from small-scale societies).
(v)
We need more cross-cultural comparisons assessing how shared cultural practices affect MHC-associated preferences. These include marriage practices such as various forms of endogamy.
(vi)
In any study, researchers should obtain and clearly document detailed information about interindividual differences in cultural practices of the studied population, as some practices may interfere with MHC-associated effects. These include HC use and personal hygiene practices such as fragrance use (see also [92] for a similar proposal).
(vii)
We need to distinguish between a threshold-based avoidance of very similar individuals and a fluid preference for the most dissimilar individuals.
(viii)
Currently, there is not, to our knowledge, a single study focusing on the development of MHC-associated preferences. Therefore, we do not know when in ontogeny preferences might form and how family structure affects the development of these preferences. Rodent studies show that cross-fostering tends to reverse MHC-associated preferences [93], thus similar phenomena might be expected in humans. For instance, studies with adoptive families might be particularly informative.
(ix)
We need studies testing possible mechanisms of MHC-associated preferences. These include bioassay studies testing the presence and abundance of the MHC peptide ligands. Similarly, studies testing effect of the MHC peptide ligands in the context of mate choice are of primary importance.
(x)
Finally, we should link research on MHC-associated mate choice and research on MHC-associated pregnancy loss. The two areas have to date been studied separately; however, they may jointly provide key insights into this complex area of human reproduction. Such research may also examine links between pregnancy loss and infertility with the prevalence of cultural practices (e.g. fragrance use) that may have disrupted MHC-associated mate preferences at the beginning of the relationship.



Rolf Degen summarizing: In the Far East, ongoing evolution has been wiping out the genetic foundation of people's ability to produce body odors

The specific biochemistry of human axilla odour formation viewed in an evolutionary context
Andreas Natsch and Roger Emter. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, April 20 2020. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0269

Abstract: Human body odour is dominated by the scent of specific odourants emanating from specialized glands in the axillary region. These specific odourants are produced by an intricate interplay between biochemical pathways in the host and odour-releasing enzymes present in commensal microorganisms of the axillary microbiome. Key biochemical steps for the release of highly odouriferous carboxylic acids and sulfur compounds have been elucidated over the past 15 years. Based on the profound molecular understanding and specific analytical methods developed, evolutionary questions could be asked for the first time with small population studies: (i) a genetic basis for body odour could be shown with a twin study, (ii) no effect of genes in the human leukocyte antigen complex on the pattern of odourant carboxylic acid was found, and (iii) loss of odour precursor secretion by a mutation in the ABCC11 gene could explain why a large fraction of the population in the Far East lack body odour formation. This review summarizes what is currently known at the molecular level on the biochemistry of the formation of key odourants in the human axilla. At the same time, we present for the first time the crystal structure of the Nα-acyl-aminoacylase, a key human odour-releasing enzyme, thus describing at the molecular level how bacteria on the skin surface have adapted their enzyme to the specific substrates secreted by the human host.


12. In the light of evolution—axilla odour as an evolutionary puzzle

In this review, we tried to give a comprehensive review on what is known of the biochemistry of human axilla odour formation and detection. We have already alluded to the potential evolutionary implications of these findings in the different sections above and will now summarize the key findings in the evolutionary context.
We highlighted the different specific odourants that are released as specific precursors by specialized glands. Combined with the fact that these precursors seem to be produced locally, axillary glands indeed appear to be a specialized metabolic organ producing these compounds for local secretion.
Multiple enzymes and transport proteins of the host are involved in scent release—some of these have already been characterized biochemically with in vitro experiments (ABCC11 and GGT1), while others can only be inferred based on what is known on the biosynthesis of related conjugates investigated especially in the toxicological field.
On the receiver side, the high sensitivity of the human nose (and hence the corresponding olfactory receptors) for axillary odourants also indicates a specific adaptation of our olfactory receptor repertoire to these human odourants, although further work is required on this aspect truly to explain the high sensitivity at the receptor level.
Taken together, the above observations on a specific and complex biochemistry for odour formation and detection in the human body suggest that axilla odours must have had an adaptive function in human evolutionary history. We contrasted this observation to other general ‘malodours’ such as foot, faecal or breath odours that can largely be explained by common bacterial catabolism of excess proteins, and no specific evolutionary adaptation is required to lead to such odours as simple by-products of the catabolism of residual proteins by opportunistic bacteria. The fact that our sense of smell is particularly tuned to those odours, too, as warning signals of decay also has evolutionary implications, but that's another story.
Turning from the human host to the commensal bacteria, an interesting case for coevolution could be described. The bacteria have highly specialized enzymes and transport proteins for precursor uptake and odour release. The analysis of the spectrum of odourant precursors released and the substrate specificity of the bacterial enzyme N-AGA reveals a close match of the substrate spectrum offered by the host and the substrate specificity of the bacterial enzyme. This could be further corroborated by the data on the crystal structure of the enzyme described herein for the first time: the Gln residue conserved in all acid precursors is tightly bound by an intricate network of hydrogen bonds in the active site explaining the high substrate specificity for Gln conjugates, while there is ample space for the binding of different hydrophobic residues found in the different substrates offered in this ecological niche by the human host.
We had found that the individual-specific odourtype is stable and genetically determined. This indicates that axilla odours can reveal individual-specific information and could, in principle, contribute to kin recognition. To what extent body odours were indeed a contributing factor in social communication in prehistoric societies may be difficult to assess, yet the stable, genetically determined pattern at least indicates that body odours could have had such a function based on the underlying (bio)chemistry.
While the observations summarized above all support the case for an adaptive function of axillary odours in an evolutionary context, the ABCC11 mutation, which confers an almost odourless phenotype and that has rapidly spread in human populations in the Far East, is telling an opposing story. The rapid spread of the haplotype containing this mutation points to a strong selection pressure and may indicate that axilla odours had already become an unwanted trait in early agrarian societies living in closer proximity. The reduced sensory capacity to smell the conspecific as revealed by high anosmia rates for body odours points in a similar direction: a loss of importance of chemical communication through axilla odours in recent evolutionary history, which now is also reflected in a widespread use of deodourants in contemporary societies. In Japan, where the frequency of the mutated ABCC11 haplotype is high, but has not reached 100%, individuals with a functional ABCC11 allele frequently undergo surgery [63,64] to remove axillary glands. Surgery is even covered by social security as axilla odours owing to a functional ABCC11 allele are perceived as a disease. Thus, axillary odours appear as a fascinating trace of our evolutionary past having largely lost their role in the contemporary context.

Sunday, April 19, 2020

We find anecdotal evidence to be more persuasive than statistical evidence when emotional engagement is high, as when issues involve a severe threat, health, or oneself

When poignant stories outweigh cold hard facts: A meta-analysis of the anecdotal bias. Traci H. Freling et al. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Volume 160, September 2020, Pages 51-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.01.006

Highlights
• This meta-analysis explores the impact of evidence type on persuasion in 61 studies.
• Overall, statistical evidence exerts a greater impact on persuasion than anecdotal evidence.
• The main effect of evidence type on persuasion is moderated by important contextual variables.
• We find anecdotal evidence to be more persuasive than statistical evidence when emotional engagement is high, as when issues involve a severe threat, health, or oneself.
• We propose that factors which heighten emotional engagement render decision makers more susceptible to the anecdotal bias.

Abstract: The objective of this paper is to resolve mixed findings about which type of evidence is more persuasive—statistical or anecdotal information. In a meta-analysis of 61 papers exploring the persuasive impact of evidence type, we establish that, in situations where emotional engagement is high (e.g., an issue associated with a severe threat, involving a health issue, or affecting oneself), statistical evidence is less influential than anecdotal evidence. However, in situations where emotional engagement is relatively low (e.g., an issue associated with low threat severity, involving a non-health issue, or affecting others), statistical evidence is more persuasive than anecdotal evidence. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings, and how to improve persuasive messaging by considering the contextual effectiveness of both anecdotes and statistics.


Saturday, April 18, 2020

The stereotype (familiar since at least the time of Plato's description of the mad genius) that stand-up comedians are an extraordinarily troubled lot is wrong

Stand-Up Comedy and Mental Health: Critiquing the Troubled Stand-Up Stereotype. Sheila Lintott. Chapter in The Dark Side of Stand-Up Comedy pp 197-222, April 11 2020. https://rd.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-37214-9_10

Abstract: In “Stand-Up Comedy and Mental Health: Critiquing the Troubled Stand-Up Stereotype,” philosopher and amateur stand-up comedian Sheila Lintott analyzes the nature and critically evaluates the evidence for the stereotype that stand-up comedians are an extraordinarily troubled lot, arguing that the evidence does not support the truth of the stereotype. In addition, this chapter explores the roots of the stereotype in the mad genius stereotype familiar since at least the time of Plato; considers reasons for its perpetuation among the public, academia, and stand-ups themselves; and surveys the negative consequences of the troubled stand-up stereotype, including a tendency to downplay the role the working conditions, climate, and culture of stand-up comedy plays in creating or exacerbating any mental health, social, and addiction challenges faced by comedians.





Self-reported Compliance and Attitudes About Social Distancing During the COVID-19 Outbreak

Lab, Brauer G. 2020. “Self-reported Compliance and Attitudes About Social Distancing During the COVID-19 Outbreak.” OSF Preprints. April 13. doi:10.31219/osf.io/bv28d

Abstract: We studied self-reports of social distancing in a nationally representative survey of U.S. adults. We found that younger, less educated individuals who do not see social distancing as effective or the norm are currently less likely to fully comply with social distancing recommendations. Barriers such as not being able to tolerate social distancing for a long time prevent individuals from doing so, while seeing how distancing can help one's family and others is a potential benefit that could be made salient to encourage compliance. Communication campaigns aimed at increasing social distancing should use trusted sources such as public health officials and should work through national news networks and social media, as these are the media most used by the individuals whose behavior we need to change to address the current public health crisis.


Educational attainment & being Democrat is positively related to reduction in distance traveled & non-essential visitations, but the opposite effect is observed for human encounters (selectively engaging)

Im, Hohjin, Christopher Ahn, Peiyi Wang, and Chuansheng Chen. 2020. “An Early Examination: Psychological, Health, and Economic Correlates and Determinants of Social Distancing Amidst COVID-19.” PsyArXiv. April 13. doi:10.31234/osf.io/9ravu

Abstract: With the exponential spread of COVID-19 across the United States, federal and local government agencies have issued numerous orders and recommendations for residents to practice social distancing. This study utilizes data collected from Unacast Inc. spanning observations of 3,142 counties across 50 states from March 8, 2020 to April 5, 2020 (N = 83,944) in a 3-level multilevel model to examine the correlates of social distancing behavior, as measured by the proportional reduction in 1) distance traveled and 2) nonessential visitations, as well as, the absolute value reduction in 3) human encounters made, compared to pre-COVID-19 times. Results indicate that the proportion of Democrats and educational attainment is positively related to reduction in distance traveled and non-essential visitations, but the opposite effect is observed for human encounters, suggesting that Democrats and educated individuals may be selectively engaging in certain social distancing behaviors but not others. Average personal income and proportion of older residents were generally positively related to engagement in social distancing. State-level variables for health and economics show little relation to engagement in social distancing, suggesting that communication of health and preventative behavior information may prove more fruitful at the local level than state level. Implications and interpretations of findings are discussed.


Cross-cultural analysis illustrated that the relationship between infectious diseases and authoritarianism was pronounced for infectious diseases that can be acquired from other humans

Zmigrod, Leor, Tobias Ebert, Friedrich M. Götz, and Jason Rentfrow. 2020. “The Psychological and Socio-political Consequences of Infectious Diseases.” PsyArXiv. April 11. doi:10.31234/osf.io/84qcm

Abstract: What are the socio-political consequences of infectious diseases? Humans have evolved to avoid disease and infection, resulting in a set of psychological mechanisms that promote disease-avoidance, referred to as the behavioural immune system (BIS). One manifestation of the BIS is the cautious avoidance of unfamiliar, foreign, or potentially contaminating stimuli. Specifically, when disease infection risk is salient or prevalent, authoritarian attitudes can emerge that seek to avoid and reject foreign outgroups while favoring homogenous, familiar ingroups. In the largest study conducted on the topic to date (N>240,000), elevated regional levels of infectious pathogens were related to more authoritarian attitudes on three geographical levels: across US metropolitan regions, US states, and cross-culturally across 47 countries. The link between pathogen prevalence and authoritarian psychological dispositions predicted conservative voting behavior in the 2016 US Presidential Election as well as more authoritarian governance and state laws, in which one group of people imposes asymmetrical laws on others in a hierarchical structure. Furthermore, cross-cultural analysis illustrated that the relationship between infectious diseases and authoritarianism was pronounced for infectious diseases that can be acquired from other humans (nonzoonotic), and does not generalize to other infectious diseases that can only be acquired from non-human species (zoonotic diseases). At a time of heightened awareness of infectious diseases, these findings are important reminders that public health and ecology can have ramifications for socio-political attitudes, and this can shape how citizens vote as well as how they govern and are governed.


Religiosity, shared identity, trust, and punishment of norm violations: No evidence of generalized behavioral prosociality, only of self-reported prosociality

Galen, L. W., Kurby, C. A., & Fles, E. H. (2020). Religiosity, shared identity, trust, and punishment of norm violations: No evidence of generalized prosociality. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, Apr 2020. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000320

Abstract: Previous research has suggested that religion is associated not only with self-reported prosociality, but also with observable behaviors as manifested in standard economic game interactions. However, such studies have often left key elements uncontrolled, leading to incomplete interpretations of the influences of religiosity. The present article includes two studies in which prosocial behavior was assessed as a function of the religious identity (Christian or nonreligious) and intrinsic religiosity of the participant and the religious identity of the game partner (Christian or atheist). In Study 1, although participant religiosity and religious identity were related to greater self-reported agreeableness, they were inversely related to behavioral trust in a partner (i.e., amount forwarded) regardless of the partner’s religious identity. In Study 2, a third-party paradigm allowed participants to address an unequal exchange between partners (either Christians or atheists) by either punishing the perpetrator or compensating the victim. There was no overall effect of participant religiosity on the tendency to punish or compensate unequal exchanges. However, religiosity was related to relatively greater fairness ratings of the objectively unequal exchange. In sum, religiosity was predictive of self-reported but not behavioral prosociality.


Political humility: engaging others with different political perspectives

Political humility: engaging others with different political perspectives. Adam S. Hodge,Joshua N. Hook,Daryl R. Van Tongeren,Don E. Davis &Stacey E. McElroy-Heltzel. The Journal of Positive Psychology, Apr 16 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1752784

ABSTRACT: As the current political environment in the United States and around the world becomes more polarized, it is important to better understand the intrapersonal and interpersonal effects of engaging political discourse with political humility. Across two studies, we explored the predictors of political humility (Study 1), and how political humility might impact engagement with different viewpoints (Study 2). In Study 1 (N = 311), political humility was positively related to openness, but negatively associated with political commitment. In Study 2 (N = 194), controlling for political commitment, political humility was positively associated with identifying positives in the opposite political perspective, identifying the results of a neutral essay as inconclusive, and having more favorable ratings of a political essay contrary to their own views. On the other hand, political humility was negatively related to experiential avoidance. We conclude by discussing limitations and suggestions for future research.

KEYWORDS: Intellectual humility, politics, commitment, personality, relational humility


Friday, April 17, 2020

Rethinking the concept of capitalism: a historian’s perspective

Rethinking the concept of capitalism: a historian’s perspective. Youngsoo Bae. Social History, Volume 45, 2020 - Issue 1, Pages 1-25, Feb 7 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071022.2020.1694771

ABSTRACT: This essay seeks to rethink the concept of capitalism by focusing on power relationships. Conventionally, capitalism has been treated as being essentially an economic or socio-economic system, whereas recent scholars have highlighted the political process and other underappreciated aspects. I propose that capitalism be redefined as a type of civilization: in essence, as a power structure, in a very wide sense, which is established by a group of people who organize themselves and allocate available resources. It presupposes polity, citizenship, and political process, which, along with property rights, contractual safeguards, and other institutions supporting the market economy, may be called the political foundation of capitalism. As such, capitalism has a highly distinctive feature in that economic power is almost independent of political authority, religious command, or physical violence. This redefined concept has significant implications for understanding the history of capitalism. Above all, it assists in rethinking the framework of interpretation and observing the changing dynamics of international relationships in the modern world. Furthermore, it advances fresh perspectives on American history, specifically on such issues as the transition to capitalism, the fate of the ruling class, the nature of slavery in the antebellum South, and gender in the history of capitalism.

KEYWORDS: Concept of capitalism, capitalist civilization, power structure, political authority, economic power, history of capitalism, varieties of capitalism


From 2017... Class struggles we may not like are those provoked by cholera, with riots of 10,000, murdering state officials & doctors, destroying hospitals, town halls, & in the case of Donetsk, an entire city

From 2017... Cholera revolts: a class struggle we may not like. Samuel Kline Cohn Jr. Social History, Volume 42, 2017 - Issue 2, Pages 162-180, Apr 19 2017. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071022.2017.1290365

Abstract: Few have studied cholera revolts comparatively, and certainly not over the vast terrain from Asiatic Russia to Quebec or across time from the first European cholera wave of the 1830s to the twentieth century. Scholars have instead concentrated on the first European cholera wave in the 1830s and have tended to explain cholera’s social violence within the political contexts of individual nations, despite these riots raging across vast differences in political landscapes from Czarist Russia to New York City but with similar fears and conspiracy theories of elites inventing cholera to cull populations of the poor. Moreover, the history of cholera’s social toxins runs against present generalizations on why epidemics spawn blame and violence against others. Cholera riots continued, and in Italy and Russia became geographically more widespread, vicious, and destructive long after the disease had lost its mystery. The article then poses the question of why historians on the left have not studied the class struggles provoked by cholera, with riots of 10,000, murdering state officials and doctors, destroying hospitals, town halls, and in the case of Donetsk, an entire city. Finally, the article draws parallels between Europe’s cholera experiences and those in West Africa with Ebola in 2014.

KEYWORDS: Cholera, epidemics, conspiracies, riots, class struggle, Karl Marx, comparative history



Humans & primates’ reactions to death-related threats highlight a general tendency to “cling to the group” & to display increased social motivation in the face of death and deadly events

Adam-Troian, J., Bonetto, E., Varet, F., Arciszewski, T., & Dezecache, G. (2020). Explaining social behavior in response to death-related threats: The conspecific loss compensation mechanism. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, Apr 2020. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000202

Abstract: Exposure to death-related threats, thoughts and cues (actual or anticipated death of conspecifics, including oneself) remain powerful stressors across primate species, including humans. Accordingly, a pervasive issue in psychology pertains to the kind of social–cognitive responses exposure to deadly threats generates. To this day, psychological models of reactions to death-related threats remain underspecified, especially with regards to modern evolutionary theory. Research on both humans and nonhuman primates’ reactions to death-related threats highlights a general tendency of human and nonhuman primates to “cling to the group” and to display increased social motivation in the face of death and deadly events (predator attacks, disasters, terror attacks. . .). Given the adaptive value of social networks, which provide individuals with resources, mating pool and support, we propose the existence of an evolved mechanism to explain these affiliative responses. In particular, we propose a “conspecific loss compensation mechanism” (CLCM) that actively keeps track of and compensates for threats to the integrity of one’s social network. In the face of death-related cues signaling a danger for one’s social network, or actual conspecific loss, CLCM triggers proportional affiliative responses by a process labeled compensatory socialization. After reviewing existing evidence for the CLCM, we discuss its plausibility, parsimonious character, and explanatory power of the diversity of responses observed among threatened and grieving individuals. We also formulate clear and novel predictions to be tested in future research.


Participants considered harm to a pedestrian more permissible with an autonomous car as compared to self as the decision agent in a regular car, driven by the attribution of responsibility to the autonomous one

Blame It on the Self-Driving Car: How Autonomous Vehicles Can Alter Consumer Morality. Tripat Gill. Journal of Consumer Research, ucaa018, April 11 2020.  https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucaa018

Abstract: Autonomous vehicles (AVs) are expected to soon replace human drivers and promise substantial benefits to society. Yet, consumers remain skeptical about handing over control to an AV. Partly due to the uncertainty about the appropriate moral norms for such vehicles (e.g., should AVs protect the passenger or the pedestrian if harm is unavoidable?). Building on recent work on AV morality, the current research examined how people resolve the dilemma between protecting self versus a pedestrian, and what they expect an AV to do in a similar situation. Five studies revealed that participants considered harm to a pedestrian more permissible with an AV as compared to self as the decision agent in a regular car. This shift in moral judgments was driven by the attribution of responsibility to the AV and was observed for both severe and moderate harm, and when harm was real or imagined. However, the effect was attenuated when five pedestrians or a child could be harmed. These findings suggest that AVs can change prevailing moral norms and promote an increased self-interest among consumers. This has relevance for the design and policy issues related to AVs. It also highlights the moral implications of autonomous agents replacing human decision-makers.

Keywords: morality, autonomous vehicles, control, responsibility, harm


Thursday, April 16, 2020

News consumption of any sort is heavily outweighed by other forms of media consumption; fake news comprises only 0.15% of Americans’ daily media diet

Evaluating the fake news problem at the scale of the information ecosystem. Jennifer Allen et al. Science Advances Apr 3 2020, Vol. 6, no. 14, eaay3539. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aay3539

Abstract: “Fake news,” broadly defined as false or misleading information masquerading as legitimate news, is frequently asserted to be pervasive online with serious consequences for democracy. Using a unique multimode dataset that comprises a nationally representative sample of mobile, desktop, and television consumption, we refute this conventional wisdom on three levels. First, news consumption of any sort is heavily outweighed by other forms of media consumption, comprising at most 14.2% of Americans’ daily media diets. Second, to the extent that Americans do consume news, it is overwhelmingly from television, which accounts for roughly five times as much as news consumption as online. Third, fake news comprises only 0.15% of Americans’ daily media diet. Our results suggest that the origins of public misinformedness and polarization are more likely to lie in the content of ordinary news or the avoidance of news altogether as they are in overt fakery.

DISCUSSION

Summarizing, we note that according to Google Scholar at the time of final submission, 2210 English language publications with “fake news” in the title had appeared since January 2017, compared with just 73 in all the years leading up to and including 2016. Not only has interest in fake news clearly exploded in the past 2 years, but it has also far outstripped attention to TV news: A comparable count yielded just 329 articles published since 2017 containing either “television news” or “TV news” in their titles, while 708 articles contained “online news,” 394 contained “Twitter” or “Facebook” and “news,” and 556 contained “social media” and “news.” Restricting further to studies that explicitly connect misinformation to a particular platform, Google Scholar yielded 99 results containing both “misinformation” and one of “online” or “social media” or “web” in the title since 2017, but just 1 result for “misinformation” and “television” or “TV”—an article about the unrealistic survival rates of cardiopulmonary resuscitation on TV shows. This evident focus of the recent research literature on online sources of fake news and misinformation is directionally and proportionately inconsistent with our results in three ways. First, whereas the research treats news consumption as the issue of primary importance, we find that most media consumption, whether online or on TV, is not news related. Second, whereas research on online news—and even more specifically news on social media platforms—markedly outweighs research on TV news, we find that TV news consumption dominates online by a ratio of 5:1 (where the ratio is even more extreme for social media sites). Third, whereas the topic of fake news outstrips all other news-related research, we find that fake news itself is only 1% of overall news consumption, substantially lower for Twitter alone (8). Instead, news consumption is heavily dominated by mainstream news sources both online and on TV.
We emphasize that our results do not imply that fake news is not a problem worthy of attention. Arguably the deliberate circulation of false information with the objective of creating confusion and discord is intolerable in principle and should be combatted at any prevalence greater than zero. Moreover, it is possible that news consumed online could have more impact per minute of exposure than news consumed on TV, or that fake news could have an outsized impact compared with regular news, or that it could have large impacts on certain subpopulations. Last, we note that our definitions of news and fake news are—with the exception of YouTube—dependent on site or program-level classifications. News-relevant content on social media that is not tied to a particular URL, or false or misleading information that is promulgated by generally reliable news sources, would therefore be misclassified by our scheme. We hope that future work will address all of these areas of uncertainty. We note, however, that our methodology was designed to be consistent with previous work, which also has used list-based classification and relied on prevalence (i.e., not impact) to assess importance. On those terms, our finding that fake news is extremely rare, comprising only about one-tenth of 1% of Americans’ overall daily media diet, suggests that concerns regarding possible threats to democracy should be much broader in scope than deliberately engineered falsehoods circulating on social media. In particular, public ignorance or misunderstanding of important political matters could also arise out of a combination of (i) ordinary bias and agenda setting in the mainstream media (2325)) and (ii) the overall low exposure of many Americans to news content in general, especially in written form. We conclude that future work on misinformation and its potentially corrosive effects on democracy should consider all potential sources of problematic content, as well as the absence of relevant content, not simply the type that is most easily identified and least associated with conventional media interests (19).

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

Supplementary material for this article is available at http://advances.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/6/14/eaay3539/DC1

Using femme theory, Foucault, and queer failure as analytical frameworks, the current paper demonstrates the role of feminine failure in resisting and subverting systems of oppression

Femme resistance: the fem(me)inine art of failure. Rhea Ashley Hoskin, & Allison Taylor. Psychology & Sexuality, Volume 10, 2019 - Issue 4, Pages 281-300, May 13 2019. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2019.1615538

ABSTRACT: Using femme theory, Foucault, and queer failure as analytical frameworks, the current paper demonstrates the role of feminine failure in resisting and subverting systems of oppression, subsequently providing the minute shifts in power necessary to expand the terms of patriarchal femininity. More specifically, the current paper draws on contemporary modes of art and aesthetics to examine the productive potential of failing to embody patriarchal femininity, positing this failure as a form of femme resistance. By hijacking cultural signifiers of adornment, femme and feminine failure celebrate that which is culturally shamed (queer, fat, disabled, variant, poor, and racially minoritised bodies), expose systems of erasure, challenge binary systems of meaning, and promote feminine growth. Examining each of these themes in turn, the current paper argues that feminine failure challenges the pillars of patriarchal femininity and discursive systems of normativity. To this end, femme as a theoretical framework demonstrates the freedom of failure by exposing the heterogeneous multiplicities of femininity, and offering possibilities that normativity never could. This critical discursive essay contributes to the emergent application of femme as a theoretical framework.

KEYWORDS: Femme, queer femininity, queer resistance, femininities, femme theory, critical femininities



The colors of love: facial thermal reactions of people thinking about their lovers

The colors of love: facial thermal reactions of people thinking about their lovers. Fabio Cannas Aghedu et al. Psychology & Sexuality, Apr 15 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2020.1756392

Abstract: Romantic love involves peculiar psychological and neural processes that are closely connected with autonomic-visceral changes. The present study aimed at investigating the thermal response associated to the love induction task. The facial thermal imprints of forty-four people who were in love and in romantic relationships at the time of the experiment were recorded. Thermal signals were extracted from six regions of interest (ROIs), positioned on the tip of the nose, the upper nose and the perioral areas. The experimental protocol was composed of two conditions, randomized among the subjects: love and control conditions. In the first one, participants were initially asked to think about their partners, then to keep continuing this task while listening to a song related to their relationships; in the second one, they were asked to think about someone else’s relationship, then keep continuing this task while listening to positive-content song, unknown to the specific participant.

The results showed that, when experiencing the love condition, the temperature of the nasal tip of the subjects increased, compared to the control condition. Moreover, the data showed that music induced a far more intense peripheral response. Thinking about their partners whilst listening to the love song caused higher peripheral (nose temperature) and subjective responses than with the unknown happy song, which suggests that love induction task activates peculiar patterns that go beyond mere positive feelings.

Key words: Romantic love, Love induction task, Peripheral measures, Functional infrared thermal imaging, Emotions, Psychophysiology


Wednesday, April 15, 2020

What prevents people from making friends: The most important factor was “Low trust,” followed by the “Lack of time” and the “Introversion;” significant sex-differences were found for 3 out of the 6 factors

What prevents people from making friends: A taxonomy of reasons. Menelaos Apostolou, Despoina Keramari. Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 163, September 1 2020, 110043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110043

Highlights
• Developed an evolutionary theoretical framework for understanding why people face difficulties in making friends
• Identified 40 reasons which prevent people from making friend
• Identified six factors which prevent people from making friends
• Found significant sex and age effect in the factors which prevent people from making friends

Abstract: Friendship constitutes an important aspect of human experience. Yet, it is not always easy to make friends, and the current research aims to understand the reasons which constrain people from doing so. More specifically, using qualitative research methods, we identified 40 reasons which prevented people from making friends. Using quantitative research methods, we classified these reasons in six broader factors. The most important factor was “Low trust,” followed by the “Lack of time” and the “Introversion.” Significant sex-differences were found for three out of the six factors, with the largest one being in the “Low trust,” where women gave higher scores than men. Finally, we found significant age effects for almost all factors.

Keywords: FriendshipEvolution of friendshipsDifficulties in making friendsMaking friendsEvolution of friendship


Those religious (but not secular) that self-enhance saying they have more religious knowledge ("religious overclaiming") show more support for, and willingness to engage in, religious aggression

Religious Overclaiming and Support for Religious Aggression. Daniel N. Jones et al. Social Psychological and Personality Science, April 14, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620912880

Abstract: Agentic self-enhancement consists of self-protective and self-advancing tendencies that can lead to aggression, especially when challenged. Because self-enhancers often endorse aggression to defend or enhance the self-concept, religious self-enhancement should lead to endorsing aggression to defend or enhance one’s religion. We recruited three samples (N = 969) from Mechanical Turk (n = 409), Iran (n = 351), and the U.S.–Mexico border region (n = 209). We found that religious (but not secular) self-enhancement in the form of religious overclaiming predicted support for, and willingness to engage in, religious aggression. In contrast, accuracy in religious knowledge had mostly negative associations with aggression-relevant outcomes. These results emerged across two separate religions (Christianity and Islam) and across three different cultures (the United States, Iran, and the U.S.–Mexico border region). Thus, religious overclaiming is a promising new direction for studying support for religious aggression and identifying those who may become aggressive in the name of God.

Keywords: violence, terrorism, aggression, overclaiming, self-deceptive enhancement



Third- (TPP) and second-party (SPP) punishment share neural patterns & cognitive functions; TPP loads more brain regions associated with social cognition & SPP brain regions associated with affective processing

The Emerging Neuroscience of Social Punishment: Meta-Analytic Evidence. Gabriele Bellucci et al. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, April 14 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.04.011

Highlights
• Third- (TPP) and second-party (SPP) punishment share neural patterns and cognitive functions.
• These neural patterns and cognitive functions are, however, differently engaged by TPP and SPP.
• TPP loads more on brain regions associated with social cognition.
• SPP loads more on brain regions associated with affective processing.
• Functional brain network organization for TPP and SPP shows both commonalities and specificity.

Abstract: Social punishment (SOP)—third-party punishment (TPP) and second-party punishment (SPP)—sanctions norm-deviant behavior. The hierarchical punishment model (HPM) posits that TPP is an extension of SPP and both recruit common processes engaging large-scale domain-general brain networks. Here, we provided meta-analytic evidence to the HPM by combining the activation likelihood estimation approach with connectivity analyses and hierarchical clustering analyses. Although both forms of SOP engaged the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and bilateral anterior insula (AI), a functional differentiation also emerged with TPP preferentially engaging social cognitive regions (temporoparietal junction) and SPP affective regions (AI). Further, although both TPP and SPP recruit domain-general networks (salience, default-mode, and central-executive networks), some specificity in network organization was observed. By revealing differences and commonalities of the neural networks consistently activated by different types of SOP, our findings contribute to a better understanding of the neuropsychological mechanisms of social punishment behavior––one of the most peculiar human behaviors.

Keywords: social punishmentsecond-party punishmentthird-party punishmentactivation likelihood estimationmeta-analytic connectivity mappingresting-state functional connectivity



Subjective well-being: Users with a tendency to engage in social comparison are especially likely to be negatively impacted by social networking sites

Social comparison on social networking sites. Philippe Verduyn et al. Current Opinion in Psychology, Apr 14 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.04.002

Abstract: Due to the rise of social networking sites (SNSs), social comparisons take place at an unprecedented rate and scale. There is a growing concern that these online social comparisons negatively impact people’s subjective well-being (SWB). In this paper, we review research on (a) the antecedents of social comparisons on SNSs, (b) the consequences of social comparisons on SNSs for SWB and, (c) social comparison as a mechanism explaining (mediator) or affecting (moderator) the relationship between SNSs and SWB. The occurrence of social comparisons on SNSs depends on who uses the SNS and on how the SNS is being used with passive use in particular resulting in increased levels of social comparison. Moreover, social comparison on SNSs may occasionally result in an increase in SWB but typically negative effects are found as people tend to engage in contrasting upward social comparisons. Finally, several studies show that social comparison is a key mechanism explaining the relationship between use of SNSs and SWB and that users with a tendency to engage in social comparison are especially likely to be negatively impacted by SNSs. The dynamic, cyclical processes that result from this pattern of findings are discussed.


Trigger warnings failed to reduce anxiety to distressing content, reliably causing small increases in anxiety

Bellet, B. W., Jones, P. J., Meyersburg, C. A., Brenneman, M. M., Morehead, K. E., & McNally, R. J. (2020). Trigger warnings and resilience in college students: A preregistered replication and extension. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. Apr 2020. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000270

Abstract: Trigger warnings notify people that content they are about to engage with may result in adverse emotional consequences. An experiment by Bellet, Jones, and McNally (2018) indicated that trigger warnings increased the extent to which trauma-naïve crowd-sourced participants see themselves and others as emotionally vulnerable to potential future traumas but did not have a significant main effect on anxiety responses to distressing literature passages. However, they did increase anxiety responses for participants who strongly believed that words can harm. In this article, we present a preregistered replication of this study in a college student sample, using Bayesian statistics to estimate the success of each effect’s replication. We found strong evidence that none of the previously significant effects replicated. However, we found substantial evidence that trigger warnings’ previously nonsignificant main effect of increasing anxiety responses to distressing content was genuine, albeit small. Interpretation of the findings, implications, and future directions are discussed.


Two of the best known phenomena in memory research were carried out as dissertations in the same era at the same university, each supervised by an influential researcher working within the Gestalt framework...

Zeigarnik and von Restorff: The memory effects and the stories behind them. Colin M. MacLeod. Memory & Cognition, Apr 6 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13421-020-01033-5

Abstract: Two of the best known eponymous phenomena in memory research were carried out as dissertations in the same era at the same university, each supervised by an influential researcher working within the Gestalt framework. Both examined the influence of unexpected events on memory. Bluma Zeigarnik (Psychologische Forschung, 9, 1–85, 1927) first reported that memory is better for interrupted tasks than for completed tasks, a phenomenon long known as the Zeigarnik effect. Hedwig von Restorff (Psychologische Forschung, 18, 299–342, 1933) first reported that memory is better for isolated than for non-isolated pieces of information, a phenomenon long known as the von Restorff effect. In this article, I present: (1) a biographical sketch of the researcher behind each phenomenon, (2) a description of their dissertation research, and (3) an evaluation of the current status of each phenomenon.


Polish sample: Higher level of extraversion and lower level of agreeableness were the best predictors of a higher number of sexual partners

The Relationship of Number of Sexual Partners with Personality Traits, Age, Gender and Sexual Identification. Aleksandra Rogowska, Magdalena Tofel, Barbara Zmaczyńska-Witek & Zofia Kardasz. Psychology & Sexuality, Apr 14 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2020.1752786

Abstract: Although personality has been tested as a predictor of sexual behaviours, little is known about the contribution of personality to the number of sexual partners. This study aimed to examine the models of association between the number of lifetime sexual partners and personality traits in lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB) and heterosexual people. A web-based questionnaire was administered to the 768 Polish adults aged between 16 and 42 years old, including 61% women. Of the participants, 61% identified themselves as heterosexual, 22% as bisexual and 17% as homosexual. A series of multiple regression analyses were conducted to find the best predictors for the association between Big-Five personality traits and number of lifetime sexual partners. Age, gender, and sexual identification were also included in the analysis. Higher level of extraversion and lower level of agreeableness were the best predictors of a higher number of sexual partners. Sexual identification was a moderator of the relation between emotional stability and the number of sexual partners, whereas age and gender were separate moderators of the association between extraversion and number of sexual partners. Scientists and clinicians may use these predictors to prepare prevention and therapy for people at risk of sexual addiction or STIs.

Keywords: Big Five, personality traits, sexual identification, number of sexual partners


Contrary to 84pct of experts polled, children's delay of gratification times are increasing over the past 50 years in a fifth of a standard deviation increase in ability per decade, mirroring IQ gains seen over decades

Kids These Days! Increasing delay of gratification ability over the past 50 years in children. ohn Protzko. Intelligence, Volume 80, May–June 2020, 101451, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2020.101451

Highlights
• 50 years of administering the ‘Marshmallow Test’ shows children can delay gratification for longer, in over 30 studies
• 260 experts in cognitive development were polled before analysis to predict the result, 84% predicted incorrectly
• The magnitude of increase is 0.18 SDs per decade, nearly identical to secular gains in IQ, suggesting a possible common cause

Abstract: Have children's ability to delay gratification decreased since the past? We analyze the past 50 years of data on the Marshmallow test of delay of gratification; where children must wait to get two preferred treats of their choosing; if they cannot wait, they only get one. Here we provide comprehensive evidence on whether children's ability to delay gratification has truly been decreasing, as theories of technology or a culture of instant gratification have predicted. Before analyzing the data, we polled 260 experts in cognitive development, 84% of who believed children are getting worse or are no different than those of the past. Contrary to this prediction, we show delay of gratification times are increasing over the past 50 years, corresponding to a fifth of a standard deviation increase in ability per decade. This mirrors the magnitude of secular gains in IQ seen over decades.

Keywords: Self-regulationMetasciencePredictionFlynn effects


Tuesday, April 14, 2020

Understanding "Wage Theft"... Evasion and Avoidance Responses to Minimum Wage Increases: Minimum wage noncompliance is an important reality in the low-wage labor market

Understanding "Wage Theft": Evasion and Avoidance Responses to Minimum Wage Increases. Jeffrey Clemens, Michael R. Strain. NBER Working Paper No. 26969, April 2020. https://www.nber.org/papers/w26969

Abstract: A holistic assessment of the labor market effects of minimum wage regulation requires understanding employer compliance. We investigate how minimum wage increases and the strength of enforcement regimes affect the prevalence of subminimum wage payment. Using the Current Population Survey (CPS), we find strong evidence that higher minimum wages lead to a greater prevalence of subminimum wage payment. We estimate that increases in measured underpayment following minimum wage increases average between 14 and 22 percent of realized wage gains. Furthermore, we provide evidence that these estimates are unlikely to be driven by measurement error in the CPS’s wage data, which are self-reported. Taken together, we interpret these findings as evidence that minimum wage noncompliance is an important reality in the low-wage labor market. We find some evidence that enforcement regimes mediate both baseline rates of subminimum wage payment and the response of subminimum wage payment to increases in minimum wages.


The “return trip effect” (trip back from a destination is experienced as shorter than the trip to the destination) is due not to different familiarity of places, but to greater anticipation going out

Are We There Yet? An Anticipation Account of the Return Trip Effect. Zoey Chen, Ryan Hamilton, Derek D. Rucker. Social Psychological and Personality Science, April 13, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620916054

Abstract: Research has documented the psychological phenomenon in which the trip back from a destination is experienced as shorter than the trip to the destination. Deemed the “return trip effect” (RTE), prior work explained this phenomenon in terms of differential familiarity between home and outbound destination or an underestimation of initial travel time. The present article posits an anticipation account for the RTE: Outbound trips to a destination tend to foster higher levels of anticipation than return trips. Due to greater anticipation, people’s perception of time elongates. Importantly, the anticipation account makes novel predictions with regard to the occurrence of the RTE that cannot be accounted for by prior explanations. Multiple studies, with diverse methodologies, test and offer evidence in support of an anticipation account of the RTE.

Keywords: return trip effect, time perception, anticipation

American adolescents and young adults spent less time on non‐digital social interaction in the 2010s, with a less pronounced decline among those ages 26 and over

Declines in non‐digital social interaction among Americans, 2003–2017. Jean M. Twenge  Brian H. Spitzberg. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, April 10 2020 https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12665

Abstract: It is unclear whether Americans spent less time on non‐digital social interaction in the 2010s than in the 2000s. In the nationally representative American Time Use Survey administered by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (n = 191,558), U.S. residents 15 years of age and older spent 10 to 11 fewer minutes a day in non‐digital social interaction during leisure time in 2017 compared to 2003, which translates to 67 fewer hours a year. The decline was primarily driven by adolescents and young adults ages from15 to 25, who spent between 21 and 23 fewer minutes per day on non‐digital social interaction in 2017 compared to 2003, or 140 fewer hours a year. Thus, American adolescents and young adults spent less time on non‐digital social interaction in the 2010s, with a less pronounced decline among those ages 26 and over.

Monday, April 13, 2020

More than fantasy: Prosocial daydreams relate to prosocial dispositions and behaviour

More than fantasy: Prosocial daydreams relate to prosocial dispositions and behaviour. Peter O. Kearns  James M. Tyler  William G. Graziano. International Journal of Psychology, April 13 2020 https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12673

Abstract: The current studies examined the relationship between the penchant to daydream about helping others and prosocial traits and behaviour. We reasoned that fantasising about prosocial acts should be positively associated with a more prosocial disposition and real behaviour. Across both studies, the findings suggest that people who exhibit prosocial characteristics (e.g., empathic concern, fantasy/fictional empathy, moral reasoning) are more likely to fantasise about prosocial behaviour, and these characteristics are reliably associated with increased helping behaviours. From Study 1, the correlational results showed that people higher in agreeableness exhibited a stronger tendency to engage in prosocial fantasising, and empathy, in part, mediated the relationship. The experimental results from Study 2 conceptually support those from Study 1; when prompted to fantasise about prosocial behaviour, those higher in agreeableness and openness to experience engaged in more helping behaviour, whereas in a control condition, no helping differences emerged. Finding that empathic concern was most consistently related to daydreaming is consistent with the theory in that people are more intrinsically motivated to promote other's welfare at a personal cost when they feel empathy. Engaging in prosocial fantasising may increase empathy, which in turn, may enhance one's prosocial disposition and increase one's helping behaviour.




Sunday, April 12, 2020

Meat consumption, depressive symptomatology and cardiovascular disease incidence in apparently healthy men and women: highlights from the ATTICA cohort study (2002–2012)

Meat consumption, depressive symptomatology and cardiovascular disease incidence in apparently healthy men and women: highlights from the ATTICA cohort study (2002–2012). Matina Kouvari et al. Nutritional Neuroscience, Apr 11 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/1028415X.2020.1750169

ABSTRACT
Objectives: To evaluate the association of meat consumption with prevalent depressive symptomatology and cardiovascular disease (CVD) incidence in apparently healthy individuals.

Methods: ATTICA study was conducted during 2001–2012 including n = 1514 men and n = 1528 women (aged >18 years old) from the greater Athens area, Greece. At baseline, depressive symptomatology through Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (range 20–80) and meat consumption (total meat, red, white and processed meat) through validated semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire were assessed. Follow-up (2011–2012) was achieved in n = 2020 participants (n = 317 cases); n = 845 participants with complete psychological metrics were used for the primary analysis.

Results: Ranking from 1st to 3rd total meat consumption (low to high) tertiles, participants assigned in 2nd tertile had the lowest depressive-symptomatology scoring (p<0.001). This trend was retained in multiadjusted logistic regression analysis; participants reporting moderate total and red meat consumption had ∼20% lower likelihood to be depressed (i.e. Zung scale<45) compared with their 1st tertile counterparts (Odds Ratio (OR)total meat 0.82, 95% Confidence Interval (95%CI) (0.60, 0.97) and ORred meat 0.79 95%CI (0.45, 0.96)). Non-linear associations were revealed; 2–3 serving/week total meat and 1–2 servings/week red meat presented the lowest odds of depressive symptomatology (all ps<0.05). These U-shape trends seemed to attenuate the aggravating effect of depressive symptomatology on CVD hard endpoints. All aforementioned associations were more evident in women (all ps for sex-related interaction<0.05).

Discussion: The present findings generate the hypothesis that moderate total meat consumption and notably, red meat may be more beneficial to prevent depressed mood and in turn hard CVD endpoints.

KEYWORDS: Meat, red meat, psychological health, depression, heart disease, gender, women, primary prevention



Those who thought about donation decisions by either deliberating about the cost-effectiveness of charities we judged of less positive moral character than those deciding based on empathy

Montealegre, Andres, Lance Bush, David Moss, David Pizarro, and William Jimenez-Leal. 2020. “Does Maximizing Good Make People Look Bad?.” PsyArXiv. April 11. doi:10.31234/osf.io/2zbax

Abstract: People make inferences about others depending on the way they arrive at their moral decisions. Here, we examine evaluations of people who make moral decisions through deliberation compared to those who decide based on empathy. To do so, we turn to charitable donations. People often fail to prioritize the cost-effectiveness of charities when donating (Berman, Barasch, Levine, & Small, 2018). We argue that this pattern exists in part because donors who make charitable decisions by deliberating about the cost-effectiveness of charities are perceived as less moral and less desirable as social partners than those who decide based on empathizing with the recipients of the donation. Across six pre-registered studies using two different scenarios (N = 1,961), we presented participants with descriptions of people who thought about donation decisions by either deliberating about the cost-effectiveness of charities, or by deciding based on empathy. Reliably, participants judged “deliberators” to have less positive moral character and to be less desirable as social partners than “empathizers.” We found these results across different designs (between-subjects and within-subjects), when evaluating respondents of different genders (male and female), and for donations of different stakes (low and high). The negative reputational effects of deliberating were reduced if “deliberators” expressed empathy first. These results suggest that there may be disincentives for selecting charities based on their impact, since people are not socially rewarded for prioritizing charitable impact but are rewarded for signaling the right kinds of moral traits. We end by discussing implications and limitations of these findings.


Saturday, April 11, 2020

The case for releasing the young from lockdown: A briefing paper for policymakers

The case for releasing the young from lockdown: A briefing paper for policymakers. Andrew J. Oswald, Nattavudh Powdthavee. Warwick Business School and IZA, April 2020. https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/13113/the-case-for-releasing-the-young-from-lockdown-a-briefing-paper-for-policymakers

Summary: The UK is ‘locked down’ because of coronavirus (COVID-19). No clear exit strategy currently exists. This paper suggests a possible way forward that combines elements from economics and epidemiology. The paper proposes as a policy a ‘release’ from lockdown of the young cohort of UK citizens aged between age 20 and 30 who do not live with parents. The paper calculates that there are approximately 4.2 million UK individuals who fall into this 20-30 age-band and who live outside the original parental home. Of those, 2.6 million work in the private sector, so unless some corrective action is taken they are likely to be extremely harshly affected, financially, when compared to employees in the public sector. The paper argues that a young-workforce release of this kind would lead to substantial economic and societal benefits without enormous health costs to the country. In this way, the nation might begin to move forward in the footsteps of the young. The paper’s key concept could in principle be implemented in other countries.

Key words: coronavirus; labor market; recession; COVID-19.
JEL code: I18

Changes in Sleep Pattern, Sense of Time, and Digital Media Use During COVID-19 Lockdown in Italy

Cellini, Nicola, Natale Canale, Giovanna Mioni, and Sebastiano Costa. 2020. “Changes in Sleep Pattern, Sense of Time, and Digital Media Use During COVID-19 Lockdown in Italy.” PsyArXiv. April 11. doi:10.31234/osf.io/284mr

Abstract: Italy is one of the major COVID-19 hotspots. To reduce the spread of the infections and the pressure on Italian healthcare systems, since March 10th 2020, Italy is under a total lockdown, with restrictions on the movement of individuals in the entire nation, forcing people to home confinement. Here we present data from 1310 people living in the Italian territory (Mage= 23.91±3.60 years, 880 females, 501 workers, 809 University students), who completed an online survey from March 24th to March 28th 2020. In the survey, we asked participants to think about their use of digital media before going to bed, their sleep pattern, and their subjective experience of time in the previous week (17th-23rd of March, which was the second week of the lockdown) and to the first week of February (3rd-10th, before any restriction in any Italian area). During the lockdown, people increased the usage of digital media near bedtime, but this change did not affect sleep habits. Nevertheless, during home confinement sleep timing markedly changed, with people going to bed and waking up later, spending more time in bed but, paradoxically, also reporting a lower sleep quality. The increase in sleep difficulties was stronger for people with a higher level of depression, anxiety, and stress symptomatology, and was associated with the feeling of time dilatation. Considering that the lockdown is likely to continue for weeks, research data are urgently needed to support decision-making, to build public awareness, and to provide timely and supportive psychosocial interventions.

People see victims as moral in order to motivate adaptive justice-restorative action (i.e., punishment of perpetrators and helping of victims)

Jordan, Jillian, and Maryam Kouchaki. 2020. “Virtuous Victims.” PsyArXiv. April 11. doi:10.31234/osf.io/yz8r6

Abstract: Humans ubiquitously encounter narratives about immoral acts and their victims. Here, we demonstrate that these narratives can influence perceptions of victims’ moral character. Specifically, across a wide range of contexts, victims are seen as more moral than non-victims who have behaved identically. Using 13 experiments (total n = 8,358), we explore this Virtuous Victim effect. We show that it is specific to victims of immorality (i.e., it does not extend equally to victims of accidental misfortune) and to moral virtue (i.e., it does not extend equally to positive nonmoral traits). We also show that the Virtuous Victim effect can occur online and in the lab, when subjects have other morally relevant information about the victim, when subjects have a direct opportunity to condemn the perpetrator, and in the context of both third- and first-person victim narratives. Finally, we provide support for the Justice Restoration Hypothesis, which posits that people see victims as moral in order to motivate adaptive justice-restorative action (i.e., punishment of perpetrators and helping of victims). We show that people see victims as having elevated moral character, but do not expect them to behave more morally or less immorally—a pattern that is consistent with the Justice Restoration Hypothesis, but not readily explained by alternative explanations for the Virtuous Victim effect. And we provide both correlational and causal evidence for a key prediction of the Justice Restoration Hypothesis: when people do not perceive incentives to help victims and punish perpetrators, the Virtuous Victim effect disappears.


Friday, April 10, 2020

How Does Household Spending Respond to an Epidemic? Consumption During the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic

Baker, Scott R. and Farrokhnia, R.A. and Meyer, Steffen and Pagel, Michaela and Yannelis, Constantine, How Does Household Spending Respond to an Epidemic? Consumption During the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic (March 31, 2020). SSRN: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3565521

Abstract: We explore how household consumption responds to epidemics, utilizing transaction-level household financial data to investigate the impact of the COVID-19 virus. As the number of cases grew, households began to radically alter their typical spending across a number of major categories. Initially spending increased sharply, particularly in retail, credit card spending and food items. This was followed by a sharp decrease in overall spending. Households responded most strongly in states with shelter-in-place orders in place by March 29th. We explore heterogeneity across partisan affiliation, demographics and income. Greater levels of social distancing are associated with drops in spending, particularly in restaurants and retail.

Keywords: Consumption, Coronavirus, COVID-19, Household Finance, Transaction Data
JEL Classification: D14, E21, G51

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Women and conservatives were more prone to stockpiling in the early phase of the COVID-19 outbreak in the US

Kids These Days: Overall, however, the results represent a challenge to the dominant narrative that social skills are declining due to technological change

Douglas B. Downey and Benjamin G. Gibbs, "Kids These Days: Are Face-to-Face Social Skills among American Children Declining?," American Journal of Sociology 125, no. 4 (January 2020): 1030-1083. https://doi.org/10.1086/707985

Abstract: Many social commentators posit that children’s social skills are declining as a result of exposure to technology. But this claim is difficult to assess empirically because it is challenging to measure “social skills” with confidence and because a strong test would employ nationally representative data of multiple cohorts. No scholarship currently meets these criteria. The authors fill that gap by comparing teachers’ and parents’ evaluations of children’s social skills among children in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study 1998 and 2010 cohorts. The authors find no evidence that teachers or parents rate children’s face-to-face social skills as poorer among more recent cohorts, even when accounting for family characteristics, screen time use, and other factors. In addition, within cohorts, children with heavy exposure to screens exhibit similar social skills trajectories compared to children with little exposure to screens. There is a notable exception—social skills are lower for children who access online gaming and social networking many times a day. Overall, however, the results represent a challenge to the dominant narrative that social skills are declining due to technological change.


Tattoo Visibility Status, Egalitarianism, and Personality are Predictors of Sexual Openness Among Women

Showing Skin: Tattoo Visibility Status, Egalitarianism, and Personality are Predictors of Sexual Openness Among Women. Kaylee Skoda, Flora Oswald, Kailie Brown, Cassandra Hesse & Cory L. Pedersen. Sexuality & Culture, Apr 9 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12119-020-09729-1

Abstract: Research indicates that women with tattoos are evaluated more negatively than women without tattoos on numerous qualities. Further, men perceive better chances for sexual success with tattooed women than those without visible tattoos. Despite these findings, less is known about whether women with visible tattoos are more open to casual sexual encounters than their non-tattooed counterparts, and if so, what variables may predict such openness. The purpose of the present study was to explore whether, and to what extent, stereotyped perceptions of tattooed women as sexually open are accurate, and to explore the possible role of egalitarianism in sexual openness. Measures of personality and sensation-seeking were also examined. A sample of 814 women, both tattooed and non-tattooed, were recruited through a Western Canadian university research pool and various social media outlets to complete an online questionnaire assessing these attributes. Women with tattoos reported greater willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relations, as well as higher endorsement of egalitarianism and sensation-seeking, relative to non-tattooed women. Among tattooed women alone, several personality and tattooing variables predicted sexual openness. Findings suggesting body tattooing as an indicator of sexual openness are critically discussed in relation to contemporary stereotypes surrounding femininity and sexuality.



We show that relationship satisfaction and infidelity are associated and that the influence of infidelity on relationship satisfaction is greater for women than for men

Translated from German...

Relationship Satisfaction and Infidelity: One Connection, Two Directions. Christiane Bozoyan & Claudia Schmiedeberg. KZfSS Cologne Journal of Sociology and Social Psychology, Apr 9 2020. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11577-020-00660-9

Summary: How do unfaithful behavior in a relationship and satisfaction relate to the partnership? At first, the influence of relationship quality on loyalty behavior seems plausible: the more dissatisfied a partner is in a relationship, the more likely he or she is to seek external relations. However, this does not rule out the possibility that the quality of the partnership or its assessment may also change from the perspective of the perpetrator, e.g. due to conflicts and marital crises triggered by infidelity, or to reduce feelings of cognitive dissonance. Using fixed-effects models based on data from the relationship and family panel pairfam over the observation period 2008 to 2016, we examine both possible longitudinal-average modes of effect with a 1- and 2-year interval between the measurement times. It turns out that there are interactions between the two factors, with the impact of infidelity on relationship satisfaction in women being greater than in men. While the relationship between relationship satisfaction and infidelity risk is rather low, it is shown that the risk of going abroad increases significantly when the long-term orientation in the relationship decreases.

Abstract: How are unfaithful behavior and relationship satisfaction connected? It seems plausible that relationship quality has an influence on unfaithfulness: the less satisfied a partner is in a relationship, the more he or she will look for external relations. However, this does not exclude that relationship quality changes after the infidelity episode, for example, due to conflicts and marriage crises triggered by the unfaithfulness or to reduce feelings of cognitive dissonance. Using fixed-effects models based on data from the German Family Panel pairfam during an observation period from 2008 to 2016, we investigated both causal pathways with a longitudinal design and measurement points 1 or 2 years apart. We show that relationship satisfaction and infidelity are associated and that the influence of infidelity on relationship satisfaction is greater for women than for men. Although the association between relationship satisfaction and risk of infidelity is relatively low, it is shown that the risk of being unfaithful increases sharply if long-term commitment to the relationship decreases.

Participants perceive actors who demonstrate virtue in public to be less virtuous than actors who demonstrate virtue in private, and, critically, this effect is greater for generosity than impartiality

Kraft-Todd, Gordon, Max Kleiman-Weiner, and Liane Young. 2020. “Differential Virtue Discounting: Public Generosity Is Seen as More Selfish Than Public Impartiality.” PsyArXiv. March 25. doi:10.31234/osf.io/zqpv7

Abstract: There is a paradox in our desire to be seen as virtuous. If we do not overtly display our virtues, others will not be able to see them; yet, if we do overtly display our virtues, others may think that we do so only for social credit. Here, we investigate how virtue signaling works across two distinct virtues—generosity and impartiality—in eleven online experiments (total N=4,586). We demonstrate the novel phenomenon of differential virtue discounting, revealing that participants perceive actors who demonstrate virtue in public to be less virtuous than actors who demonstrate virtue in private, and, critically, that this effect is greater for generosity than impartiality. Further, we provide evidence for the mechanism underlying these judgments, showing that they are mediated by perceived selfish motivations. We discuss how these findings and our novel terminology can shed light on open questions in the social perception of reputation and motivation.