Rhesus monkeys also choke under pressure; this indicates that there may be shared neural mechanisms that underlie the behavior in both humans and monkeys

Monkeys exhibit a paradoxical decrease in performance in high-stakes scenarios. Adam L. Smoulder et al.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, August 31, 2021 118 (35) e2109643118; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2109643118

Significance: Choking under pressure is a frustrating phenomenon experienced sometimes by skilled performers as well as during everyday life. The phenomenon has been extensively studied in humans, but it has not been previously shown whether animals also choke under pressure. Here we report that rhesus monkeys also choke under pressure. This indicates that there may be shared neural mechanisms that underlie the behavior in both humans and monkeys. Introducing an animal model for choking under pressure allows for opportunities to study the neural causes of this paradoxical behavior.

Abstract: In high-stakes situations, people sometimes exhibit a frustrating phenomenon known as “choking under pressure.” Usually, we perform better when the potential payoff is larger. However, once potential rewards get too high, performance paradoxically decreases—we “choke.” Why do we choke under pressure? An animal model of choking would facilitate the investigation of its neural basis. However, it could be that choking is a uniquely human occurrence. To determine whether animals also choke, we trained three rhesus monkeys to perform a difficult reaching task in which they knew in advance the amount of reward to be given upon successful completion. Like humans, monkeys performed worse when potential rewards were exceptionally valuable. Failures that occurred at the highest level of reward were due to overly cautious reaching, in line with the psychological theory that explicit monitoring of behavior leads to choking. Our results demonstrate that choking under pressure is not unique to humans, and thus, its neural basis might be conserved across species.

Keywords: motor controlrewardanimal behaviorreachingmotivation

Despite commonly experiencing empathy in daily life, older adults are not more prosocial than other age cohorts

Pollerhoff, Lena, Julia Stietz, Gregory J. Depow, Michael Inzlicht, Philipp Kanske, Shu-Chen Li, and Andrea M. Reiter. 2021. “Investigating Adult Age Differences in Real-life Empathy, Prosociality, and Well-being Using Experience Sampling.” PsyArXiv. August 23. doi:10.31234/osf.io/983ey

Abstract: While the importance of social affect and cognition is indisputable throughout the adult lifespan, findings of how empathy and prosociality develop and interact across adulthood are mixed, and real-life data are scarce. Research using ecological momentary assessment recently demonstrated that adults commonly experience empathy in daily life. Furthermore, predictors of empathy were linked to higher prosocial behavior and subjective well-being. However, to date, it is not clear whether there are adult age differences in daily empathy and daily prosociality and whether age moderates the relationship between empathy and prosociality across adulthood. Here we analyzed experience-sampling data collected from participants across the adult lifespan to study age effects on empathy, prosocial behavior, and well-being under real-life circumstances. Linear and quadratic age effects were found for the experience of empathy, with increased empathy across the three younger age groups (18 to 45 years) and a slight decrease in the oldest group (55 years and older). Neither prosocial behavior nor well-being showed significant age-related differences. We discuss these findings with respect to (partially discrepant) results derived from lab-based or traditional survey studies. We conclude that studies linking in-lab experiments with real-life experience-sampling might be a promising venue for future lifespan studies.

Residues of glyphosate in food and dietary exposure

Residues of glyphosate in food and dietary exposure. John L. Vicini, Pamela K. Jensen, Bruce M. Young, John T. Swarthout. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, August 16 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12822

Abstract: Glyphosate is the active ingredient in Roundup® brand nonselective herbicides, and residue testing for food has been conducted as part of the normal regulatory processes. Additional testing has been conducted by university researchers and nongovernmental agencies. Presence of residues needs to be put into the context of safety standards. Furthermore, to appropriately interpret residue data, analytical assays must be validated for each food sample matrix. Regulatory agency surveys indicate that 99% of glyphosate residues in food are below the European maximum residue limits (MRLs) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency tolerances. These data support the conclusion that overall residues are not elevated above MRLs/tolerances due to agricultural practices or usage on genetically modified (GM) crops. However, it is important to understand that MRLs and tolerances are limits for legal pesticide usage. MRLs only provide health information when the sum of MRLs of all foods is compared to limits established by toxicology studies, such as the acceptable daily intake (ADI). Conclusions from dietary modeling that use actual food residues, or MRLs themselves, combined with consumption data indicate that dietary exposures to glyphosate are within established safe limits. Measurements of glyphosate in urine can also be used to estimate ingested glyphosate exposure, and studies indicate that exposure is <3% of the current European ADI for glyphosate, which is 0.5 mg glyphosate/kg body weight. Conclusions of risk assessments, based on dietary modeling or urine data, are that exposures to glyphosate from food are well below the amount that can be ingested daily over a lifetime with a reasonable certainty of no harm.

7 DISCUSSION

Calculating dietary consumption of glyphosate can be done using two disparate methods. In the first method, residues are measured in individual food items and these are summed based on consumption data for the foods that people eat. This approach requires answering several questions to make reasonable assumptions used in the modeling such as: (1) what residue value for a food is used; (2) is the food processed or cooked; (3) what residue value is used when an analyte's concentration is < LOD; (4) are mean, median, or 90th percentile values used for consumption; and (5) what and how much do people eat? In the second approach, for a pesticide like glyphosate with the knowledge of absorption from the gut, lack of metabolism, and elimination from the body, sampling of urine is an accurate way to calculate ingestion and exposure within the body (Acquavella et al., 2004; Niemann et al., 2015). Regardless of which of the two methods is used, these values need to be compared to a safety standard, such as the ADI or RfD, which are regulatory-derived safety standards. Results of determining exposure to glyphosate by dietary modeling or urinary glyphosate are presented in Table 5, Table 6, and Figure 2. Modeling allows different scenarios using estimates of consumption and data derived from market surveys, whereas urine is a surrogate for estimating actual dietary exposure to glyphosate. The results from these two methods are in relatively close agreement. Dietary estimates range from 0.03% to 18% depending on assumptions. An especially critical assumption used is the residue levels that are used. Urinary glyphosate estimates of exposure are 0.02%–2.67% of the ADI, which do not require an assumption about residue on individual foods.

In spite of that, testing and publishing about glyphosate residues, whether in peer-reviewed journals, by internet postings or in the news media, has become somewhat common in the last decade. Unfortunately, many of the popular press reports are accompanied by value-judgment words like “high” or “contaminate,” or they make scientifically inappropriate comparisons to other standards (i.e., concentrations in urine vs. regulatory defined residue levels for drinking water). Furthermore, some of these reports imply that glyphosate residues were not known to exist previously in a given food or in urine, and, therefore the findings are regarded as novel. Recent publications, such as Winter and Jara (2015), Winter et al. (2019), and Reeves et al. (2019), have attempted to provide more information about the process for risk assessment of pesticides conducted by regulatory agencies. Moreover, timely communications from regulatory agencies, such as BfR responding to reports of residues in food, German beer, or urine (BfR, 2016, 2017), provide helpful information from what should be a trustworthy source in the face of widespread social media communications about food and agriculture (Ryan et al., 2020).

One statistic that is often encountered in publications that also might generate concern by consumers is reports of increased trends over time of usage of a pesticide, either by expanded adoption or as the result of new technology, such as herbicide-tolerant crops (Benbrook, 2016). These statistics intimate that pesticide use has exceeded safe levels established by the original regulatory assessments. In one residue study, the authors suggested that it appeared that MRL values were adjusted due to actual observed increases and not based on toxicity (Bøhn et al., 2014). This is precisely how MRLs are derived. It is important to highlight that alterations in the use of a previously approved pesticide, such as usage of glyphosate on newly approved GT crops, require new residue data to be submitted from the pesticide registrant(s) prior to regulatory approval. These new residue data are reviewed by regulators in order to ensure that the previous ADI or RfD is not exceeded. Additionally, MRLs or tolerances are derived from empirical data of real-world conditions and, once established, MRLs represent for any crop the agricultural practice that results in the highest residue. EPA (1996) stated in their guidance that pesticide use patterns, such as changes in the preharvest interval and/or postharvest treatment, are likely to require residue studies, and potentially another petition for a new tolerance. Expanded usage of a pesticide might change, but by conservatively assuming that 100% of a crop will use the agricultural practice with the highest residue, exposure remaining below the ADI is not subject to changes in commercial adoption. If a new exposure resulted in the sum of all exposures exceeding the ADI, there would need to be a restriction in some use. Moreover, since regulatory authorities use data collected prior to authorization of cultivation or import of the crop, combined with periodic testing to ensure that tolerances are not being exceeded, these media reports of residues do not necessarily provide unexpected data. When properly conducted, independent, peer-reviewed studies are published, they can be a corroboration of the accuracy of previously reported regulatory residue studies.

Putting pesticide residues into context by converting these values to percentages of the EFSA- or EPA-derived ADI or RfD helps one understand the margin of safety, but many consumers want food that is free of synthetic pesticides (Krystallis & Chryssohoidis, 2005). According to Currie (1999), many believe that with improved assays, a concentration of zero might be detected, but that is scientifically not feasible.

More than ever, as in other areas of science, transparency on residues of pesticides and their assessment by global regulatory authorities entrusted by the public to ensure food safety is needed to address complex scientific information (OECD, 2020). The scientific publication process that requires peer-review of the data and conclusions has largely provided the basis for science-based regulatory assessments for the past century (Codex, 2004) . Although peer-review is not a foolproof process, it is a process with the intent of ensuring that results and conclusions from published studies are based on well-conducted and documented scientific experiments. This is in sharp contrast to the essentially unreviewed environment of media and online publications. Adequacy of peer review is increasingly more confusing with predatory journals and electronic publishing (Kelly et al., 2014). Since the public lacks training to help them distinguish information from peer-reviewed journals and science-based regulatory authorities from information they see in media reports and predatory journals, this review has included results on glyphosate residues from both sources to provide them with a single-point reference for an informed discussion of this subject.

Less intelligent Americans & British voters were more likely to have nationalist attitudes; the tendency to be more nationalist & belligerent may, among other things, form the microfoundation of democratic peace in international relations

Possible Evolutionary Origins of Nationalism. Satoshi Kanazawa. Political Behavior, Aug 23 2021. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-021-09741-7

Abstract: Why do some individuals support nationalist policies while others don’t? The Savanna-IQ Interaction Hypothesis in evolutionary psychology suggests that more intelligent individuals may be more likely to acquire and espouse evolutionarily novel values whereas less intelligent individuals may be more likely to hold evolutionarily familiar values. Nationalism is evolutionarily familiar, so the Savanna-IQ Interaction Hypothesis suggests that less intelligent individuals may be more likely to be nationalist. The analyses of the General Social Survey (GSS) data in the US and the National Child Development Study (NCDS) data in the UK confirmed the prediction. Less intelligent Americans were more likely to have nationalist attitudes, and less intelligent British voters were more likely to support nationalist parties in five general elections over three decades. The tendency of less intelligent individuals to be more nationalist and belligerent may, among other things, form the microfoundation of democratic peace in international relations.

Changes in sexual behavior observed in the early months of the pandemic have continued, with small but significant decreases in many partnered sexual behaviors & a small increase in men's solitary sexual behaviors

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Sexual Behaviors: Findings from a National Survey in the United States. Neil Gleason et al. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, August 23 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2021.08.008

Abstract

Background: Studies from the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting lockdown and social distancing measures have shown that there have been decreases in sexual frequency and relationship satisfaction.

Aim. To evaluate the ongoing impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sexual behavior, relationship satisfaction, and intimate partner violence in the U.S. using a large national convenience sample.

Methods. 1,051 participants across the U.S. were recruited in October 2020 to complete a cross-sectional online survey.

Outcomes: Participants were asked to retrospectively report their sexual behavior frequency, relationship satisfaction, and intimate partner violence during the pandemic and prior to the pandemic

Results. There was a small but significant decrease in some retrospectively-reported partnered sexual activities, and men reported a small increase in masturbation and pornography use. There was no evidence for a change in relationship satisfaction or intimate partner violence, but both men and women reported a small decrease in sexual pleasure, and women reported a small decrease in sexual desire. The sexual behaviors with greatest reduction were casual sex, hookups, and number of partners, and the most diminished as aspect of sexual functioning was sexual enjoyment. Depression symptoms, relationship status, and perceived importance of social distancing emerged as predictors of these reductions. Less than half of individuals who engaged with casual sex partners before the start of the pandemic ceased this behavior completely after the start of the pandemic. Individuals waited on average 6-7 weeks before reengaging in casual sex.

Clinical translation: These results inform public health response to the effects of the pandemic and add to our understanding of how the pandemic has continued to impact sexual behavior.

Strengths and Limitations: This is the first known study to evaluate sexual behavior several months into the COVID-19 pandemic using a large national sample. However, the results of this study are limited by its convenience sampling method and cross-sectional design.

Conclusions: These results indicate that the changes in sexual behavior observed in the early months of the pandemic have continued, with small but significant decreases in many partnered sexual behaviors and a small increase in men's solitary sexual behaviors.

Keywords: COVID-19sexual behaviorsexual functioningsexual frequencyrelationship satisfactionsexual satisfactionintimate partner violence

Happiness has positive effects both on income generation and preferring more leisure time; the net effect on income generation is positive and significant

Effects of Happiness on Income and Income Inequality. Satya Paul. Journal of Happiness Studies, Aug 22 2021. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10902-021-00439-5

Abstract: This paper examines the effects of happiness on income and income inequality. We postulate that happiness impacts upon the income generating capacity of individuals directly by stimulating work efficiency, and indirectly by affecting their allocation of time for paid work. These direct and indirect effects of happiness on income are tested in a regression model and the implication of these effects for income distribution is explored using an inequality decomposition framework. An empirical exercise based on Australian HILDA panel survey data (2001–2014) reveals that happiness has a positive and significant effect on income generation and contributes to the reduction of inequality.

Androgynous individuals are less likely to suffer depression while undifferentiated individuals are more susceptible to depression; masculinity traits seem to be a robust protective factor for depression regardless of gender

Does gender role explain a high risk of depression? A meta-analytic review of 40 years of evidence. Jingyuan Lin et al. Journal of Affective Disorders, Volume 294, Nov 1 2021, Pages 261-278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.07.018

Highlights

• Androgynous individuals are less likely to suffer depression while undifferentiated individuals are more susceptible to depression.

• Masculinity traits seem to be a robust protective factor for depression regardless of gender. Of note, the dominance of masculinity has declined as life expectancy increases.

• The protective effect of femininity against depression starts to emerge with the gradual increase in educational attainment and income level from 1990 to 2019.

Abstract

Background: This meta-analytic review aimed to systematically evaluate associations of depression with multiple gender role dimensions (masculinity, femininity, androgyny, and undifferentiated traits) and to determine potential moderators (participant characteristics, study instruments and sociocultural factors) of the relationship.

Methods: Of 4481 initially identified records in three electronic databases, 58 studies published 1978 to 2021 were included for meta-analysis.

Results: (1) Association of depression and gender role is moderated by study year and human development indices. (2) Masculinity is a protective factor for depression, while this dominance has declined as life expectancy increases. (3) A negative, weak but significant association between depression and femininity is observed in women, and college students, which starts to emerge with the gradual increase in the national education and income index from 1990 to 2019. (4) Androgynous individuals reported the lowest level of depression as compared with other gender role orientations (masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated trait group). This disparity is becoming more extreme with life expectancy and per capita income index increases.

Limitations: English-language studies were only included in this review.

Conclusions: Androgyny might be the most ideal gender role protecting both women and men from depression.

Keywords: DepressionGender roleMasculinityFemininityAndrogynyHuman development index

Popular version: Masculinity may have a protective effect against the development of depression -- even for women (psypost.org)

Physical pain, gender, & economic trends in 146 nations: Pain falls in a boom and rises in a downturn; pain is high when unemployment is high; increases in pain in recessions are borne predominantly by women

Physical pain, gender, and economic trends in 146 nations. Lucía Macchia, Andrew J. Oswald. Social Science & Medicine, August 21 2021, 114332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114332

Highlights

• The study is the first to study physical pain as a function of economic trends.

• It uses Gallup data from 146 countries.

• Pain falls in a boom and rises in a downturn.

• Pain is high when unemployment is high.

• Increases in pain in recessions are borne predominantly by women.

Abstract

Rationale: Physical pain is one of the most severe of human experiences. It is thus one of the most important to understand.

Objective: This paper reports the first cross-country study of the links between physical pain and the state of the economy. A key issue examined is how the level of pain in a society is influenced by the unemployment rate.

Methods: The study uses pooled cross-sectional Gallup data from 146 countries (total N > 1,350,000). It estimates fixed-effects regression equations that control for personal characteristics.

Results: More than a quarter of the world's citizens are in physical pain. Physical pain is lower in a boom and greater in an economic downturn. Estimated effect sizes are substantial. Remarkably, increases in pain are borne almost exclusively by women and found principally in rich nations. These findings have paradoxical aspects. The counter-cyclicality of physical pain is not what would be predicted by conventional economic analysis: during an expansion, people typically work harder and longer, and accidents and injuries increase. Nor are the study results due to unemployed citizens experiencing more pain (although they do). Instead, the study's findings are consistent with an important hypothesis proposed recently, using different kinds of evidence, by brain and behavioural-science researchers (e.g., Wiech and Tracey, 2009). The hypothesis is that economic worry can create physical pain.

Conclusions: This study provides the first cross-country evidence that the level of physical pain in a nation depends on the state of the economy. Pain is high when the unemployment rate is high. That is not because of greater pain among people who lose their jobs — it extends far beyond that into wider society. The increase in physical pain in a downturn is experienced disproportionately by women.

Keywords: Physical painUnemploymentState of the economyGender

We show general tracking accuracy in detecting a partner’s sexual rejection, but also overestimate the degree & occurrence of this rejection; the overestimation bias was associated with lower daily relationship & sexual satisfaction

Perceptual Accuracy for Sexual Rejection in Romantic Relationships. Kiersten Dobson, James Kim & Emily A. Impett. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Aug 19 2021. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10508-021-02126-1

Abstract: In the current research, we investigated perceptual accuracy in romantic partners’ detection of sexual rejection. In two daily diary studies of predominantly cisgender heterosexual couples, we examined patterns of accuracy and bias concerning both the degree of sexual disinterest (Study 1; N = 98 couples) and occurrence of sexual rejection (Study 2; N = 115 couples), as well as how these perceptions were associated with satisfaction. Using a multi-method approach to capture both continuous and categorical operationalizations of sexual rejection (Study 1: truth and bias; Study 2: quasi-signal detection), we found that people were both accurate and biased in their perceptions of partner rejection. Across studies, results showed that people demonstrated general tracking accuracy in detecting a partner’s sexual rejection, but they also overestimated the degree and occurrence of this rejection. Additionally, this overestimation bias was associated with lower daily relationship and sexual satisfaction. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of dyadic perceptions of sexual rejection in shaping daily relationship and sexual functioning.

There are about 2.5 million cooks and chefs in the USA; one in four reports experiencing physical violence in the workplace—roughly 632,500 victims; bullying and harassment are romanticized in food media

The Normalization of Violence in Commercial Kitchens Through Food Media. Ellen T. Meiser, Penn Pantumsinchai. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, April 16, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211005138

Abstract: The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that there are 2.53 million cooks and chefs in the United States. Of those, one in four reports experiencing physical violence in the workplace—roughly 632,500 victims. While shocking, this figure fails to account for the psychological and sexual violence that also plagues commercial kitchens. Workplace harassment and bullying is not limited to the United States and has been documented in Scottish, English, Scandinavian, French, Malaysian, Korean, and Australian kitchens. Why is violence so prevalent in kitchens, and how has it become a behavioral norm? Using data from 50 in-depth interviews with kitchen workers and analysis of food media, this article shows that while kitchen workplace violence can be attributed to typical causes, such as occupational stress, there is an overlooked source: the normalization of violence through food media. By exploring television shows, like “Hell’s Kitchen,” and chef memoirs, like Bourdain’s Kitchen Confidential, readers will see how bullying and harassment are romanticized in these mediums, glorified as a product of kitchen subculture, and consequently normalized in the kitchen.

Keywords: violence, culinary industry, harassment, workplace bullying, media, idioculture

Sex differences in language competence of 4-year-old children: Female advantages are mediated by phonological short-term memory

Sex differences in language competence of 4-year-old children: Female advantages are mediated by phonological short-term memory. Benjamin P. Lange, Eugen Zaretsky. Applied Psycholinguistics, August 16 2021. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/applied-psycholinguistics/article/abs/sex-differences-in-language-competence-of-4yearold-children-female-advantages-are-mediated-by-phonological-shortterm-memory/620C2871AB714CEB946F231AAB5CB508

Abstract: For some time now, psycholinguistic research has involved the study of sex differences in language development. Overall, girls seem to have an early advantage over boys, mainly in regard to vocabulary, which appears to decrease and, eventually, vanish with age. While there are numerous studies on sex differences in the acquisition of vocabulary as well as grammar, early sex differences in phonological short-term memory (PSTM) have been mostly neglected, or if research was conducted, it resulted in null findings, for the most part. In the present study, we examined sex differences in language competence (in a wide array of linguistic domains) of German children 4 years of age. Several tests were administered to assess articulation, vocabulary, grammar, speech comprehension, and, most importantly, PSTM (by means of the repetition of non-words and sentences). Girls performed better than boys in all domains, although some effect sizes were small. Most importantly, we found evidence for a female advantage in PSTM performance. Furthermore, mediation analyses revealed that the obtained sex differences in articulation, vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension were partially or fully mediated by (sex differences in) PSTM.

Life gets miserable with age, but those with higher life satisfaction & in better health tend to live longer, & , among survivors, individuals with higher life satisfaction are more likely to remain in the survey, masking the decline

The age profile of life satisfaction after age 65 in the U.S. Péter Hudomiet, Michael D. Hurd, Susann Rohwedder. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Volume 189, September 2021, Pages 431-442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2021.07.002

Highlights

• Older people express higher life satisfaction, the “Paradox of well-being.”

• But in longitudinal data life satisfaction declines with age after 65.

• Resolution of paradox: individuals with high life satisfaction stay in study longer.

• Population life satisfaction higher at older ages due to mortality & other selection.

• Life satisfaction of individuals declines due to health and widowing.

Abstract: Although income and wealth are frequently used as indicators of well-being, they are increasingly augmented with subjective measures such as life satisfaction to capture broader dimensions of the well-being of individuals. Based on large surveys of individuals, life satisfaction in cross-section often is found to increase with age beyond retirement into advanced old age. It may seem puzzling that average life satisfaction does not decline at older ages because older individuals are more likely to experience chronic or acute health conditions, or the loss of a spouse. Accordingly, this empirical pattern has been called the “paradox of well-being.” We examine the age profile of life satisfaction of the U.S. population age 65 or older in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), and find that in cross-section it increases between age 65 and 71 and is flat thereafter; but based on the longitudinal dimension of the HRS, life satisfaction significantly declines with age and the rate of decline accelerates with age. We reconcile the cross-section and longitudinal measurements by showing that both differential mortality and differential non-response bias the cross-sectional age profile upward: individuals with higher life satisfaction and in better health tend to live longer, and, among survivors, individuals with higher life satisfaction are more likely to remain in the survey, masking the decline in life satisfaction experienced by individuals as they age. We conclude that the optimistic view about increasing life satisfaction at older ages based on cross-sectional data is not warranted.

Keywords: Subjective well-beingDifferential mortalityDifferential non-responseHealthWidowing

Rejection in a date sends waves in brain areas that overlap with the physical pain matrix

Neural correlates of acceptance and rejection in online speed dating: An electroencephalography study. Xukai Zhang, M. J. W. van der Molen, Susannah C. S. A. Otieno, Zongling He, Paavo H. T. Leppänen & Hong Li. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, Aug 20 2021. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13415-021-00939-0

Abstract: Pursuing dating relationships is important for many people’s well-being, because it helps them fulfill the need for stable social relationships. However, the neural underpinnings of decision-making processes during the pursuit of dating interactions are unclear. In the present study, we used a novel online speed dating paradigm where participants (undergraduate students, N = 25, aged 18–25 years, 52% female) received direct information about acceptance or rejection of their various speed dates. We recorded EEG measurements during speed dating feedback anticipation and feedback processing stages to examine the stimulus preceding negativity (SPN) and feedback-related brain activity (Reward Positivity, RewP, and theta oscillatory power). The results indicated that the SPN was larger when participants anticipated interest versus disinterest from their speed dates. A larger RewP was observed when participants received interest from their speed dates. Theta power was increased when participants received rejection from their speed dates. This theta response could be source-localized to brain areas that overlap with the physical pain matrix (anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the supplementary motor area). This study demonstrates that decision-making processes—as evident in a speed date experiment—are characterized by distinct neurophysiological responses during anticipating an evaluation and processing thereof. Our results corroborate the involvement of the SPN in reward anticipation, RewP in reward processing and mid-frontal theta power in processing of negative social-evaluative feedback. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the neurocognitive mechanisms implicated in decision-making processes when pursuing dating relationships.

Low autonomic arousal (low resting heart rate) is a risk factor for reoffending

Oskarsson S, Kuja-Halkola R, Latvala A, Andersson A, Garcia-Argibay M, Bertoldi BM, et al. (2021) Low autonomic arousal as a risk factor for reoffending: A population-based study. PLoS ONE 16(8): e0256250. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256250

Abstract

Background  Low resting heart rate (RHR) and low systolic blood pressure (SBP) are associated with criminal behavior. However, knowledge is lacking about their predictive value for reoffending.

Aim  We aimed to examine associations of RHR and SBP with reoffending in a large population-based sample.

Methods  We conducted a cohort study of all convicted male conscripts born in Sweden 1958–1990 (N = 407,533). We obtained data by linking Swedish population-based registers. Predictor variables were RHR and SBP, measured at conscription which was mandatory until 2010 for men at age 18. The outcome variable was reoffending, defined as criminal convictions (any crime, violent crime and non-violent crime), obtained from the National Crime Register. We used survival analyses to test for associations of RHR and SBP with reoffending, adjusting for pertinent covariates such as socioeconomic status, height, weight and physical energy capacity.

Results  In fully adjusted Cox regression models, men with lower RHR (≤60 bpm) had higher risk of reoffending (any crime: HR = 1.17, 95% CI: 1.14, 1.19, violent crime: HR = 1.23, 95% CI: 1.17, 1.29, non-violent crime: HR = 1.16, 95% CI: 1.14, 1.19), compared to men with higher RHR (≥ 82 bpm). Men with lower SBP (≤80 mmHg) had higher risk of reoffending (any crime: HR = 1.19, 95% CI: 1.17, 1.21, violent crime: HR = 1.16, 95% CI: 1.12, 1.20, non-violent crime: HR = 1.20, 95% CI: 1.18, 1.22), compared to men with higher SBP (≥138 mmHg).

Conclusions  Low autonomic arousal is associated with increased risk of reoffending. RHR and SBP should be investigated further as potential predictors for reoffending as they each may have predictive value in risk assessment protocols.

Discussion

In a sample of 407,533 convicted male conscripts in Sweden born between 1958 and 1990, we found that lower RHR and lower SBP at age 18 were associated with an increased risk of reoffending. These results replicate findings from previous work conducted on risk factors for criminal behavior [5, 9], and extend these findings in important ways. Specifically, our findings replicate prior work demonstrating that individual differences in autonomic arousal, measured as RHR and SBP, are associated with criminal behavior [5, 9]. However, earlier work has not considered the prior criminal histories of study participants. Our study focused on men with a history of criminal convictions and showed that these indicators of autonomic arousal predicted subsequent reoffending. This finding is important because it provides evidence that variations in autonomic arousal are associated not only with the likelihood of offending [5, 9], but also with the persistence and repetitiveness of offending.

Our findings suggest that low RHR and low SBP should be further investigated and considered as potential predictors to be included in risk assessment protocols. All estimates in the present study remained statistically significant, with some in fact strengthened, after adjusting for pertinent covariates, indicating that RHR and SBP contribute uniquely to prediction of reoffending. Individuals with low RHR who engage in criminal behavior may not benefit from traditional treatment programs to the extent they are, according to theoretical accounts based on low fear [4] and stimulation-seeking propensities [4, 16], less able to learn from their experiences. In particular, low fear of punishment may reduce the effectiveness of conditioning. As evidence for this, youth with disruptive behavior disorders have been found to profit less from behavioral treatment if they also exhibit low RHR [30]. From this perspective, individuals who engage in criminal behavior who also have low RHR may require tailored interventions targeting their under-aroused autonomic nervous system to prevent them from reoffending. Low RHR and low SBP may have limited importance in themselves as predictors of reoffending, but together with more established predictors (e.g., history of criminal behavior, employment, psychiatric disorder) [2], they could add importantly to the identification of individuals at high risk for reoffending who could be prioritized for intervention programs. We encourage future research aimed at incorporating autonomic arousal measures into models for predicting reoffending.

It is well-known that criminal behavior runs in families [23], and that measures of autonomic arousal are heritable [31]. In addition, findings from recent research provide evidence that the association between low RHR and criminal behavior is substantially attributable to genetic influences [9]. This evidence suggests that autonomic arousal as indexed by low RHR and SBP levels may be one of the biological factors underlying transmission of criminal behavior from one generation to the next [8]. Taken together, our findings provide further impetus for considering autonomic arousal variations in etiologic models of reoffending.

The results from the present study are novel, as only one previous small-scale study has tested for an association between low RHR and reoffending [10]. In contrast to our results, this study did not find an association between low RHR and reoffending, potentially due to lack of statistical power. However, this study did find that weak heart rate reactivity and an elevated heart rate variability within a stressor task predicted a higher likelihood of reoffending during follow up. The current study is therefore the first to demonstrate an increased risk of reoffending in a large-scale population-based sample of men with prior conviction histories. Our finding of an increased risk for reoffending among previously convicted men with low SBP is also novel, as no study has examined this association before. Future research should replicate these findings in different settings and populations.

The findings of the present study should be considered in the light of some limitations. RHR and SBP were measured concurrently using an arm-cuff monitor, after subjects had rested for 5 to 10 minutes [21]. This procedure differs from the conventional laboratory method of measuring cardiac activity from skin-surface electrodes attached to the limbs or torso, which may yield cleaner data [32]. However, use of an arm-cuff is the most prevalent method for obtaining these measures clinically, and is standard practice in clinical settings in Sweden [21]. Further, no other information pertaining to the collection of RHR and SBP data was available in the Swedish Military Conscription Register. Therefore, factors such as time of recording and room temperature that may influence cardiovascular measurements could not be controlled for. It also warrants mention that valid RHR data were missing for 43% of the overall registry sample. However, sensitivity analysis including only men with valid RHR and SBP data yielded comparable estimates. This is in line with a prior study examining low RHR in relation to criminal behavior, which showed that excluding the portion of the sample who lacked RHR data did not affect the observed associations [5].

A further limitation is that our study included only men, so it remains to be seen whether our findings generalize to women. Although previous research has shown that low autonomic arousal is associated with criminal behavior for both men and women [7], we cannot draw the same conclusion with respect to reoffending. It is also important to bear in mind that our study focused on men with official convictions only, who may not be representative of all men who have engaged in criminal acts within Sweden.

In conclusion, our findings demonstrate evidence for associations for two distinct indices of autonomic arousal, RHR and SBP, with risk of reoffending, even after adjusting for possible extraneous confounds. These findings indicate that low RHR and low SBP should be further examined as predictors of reoffending, as they may help to improve identification of individuals at risk for repeated criminal justice involvement. Further evidence for the predictive value of autonomic arousal measures would support their inclusion in risk assessment protocols, as a basis for targeting case management and intervention efforts.

Today’s young adults are ascribed a mixed stereotype content, subject to harsher social judgments than both older age groups & recollections of former generations at the same age, & victim of discriminatory behaviors

Francioli, S. P., & North, M. S. (2021). Youngism: The content, causes, and consequences of prejudices toward younger adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. Aug 2021. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001064

Abstract: Research on ageism has focused largely on perceptions of and biases targeting older adults, implicitly assuming that age-based stigma increases throughout the life span and that young adults benefit from favorable views relative to their older counterparts. In a series of eight studies (N = 2,323), we provide evidence to the contrary. We theorize that, in sharp contrast with ageism toward older adults, which revolves around fear and discomfort with the target’s later life stage, youngism (i.e., ageism toward young adults) is primarily generationally focused, aiming at contemporaneous generations of young adults rather than young adults in general. Consistent with this theorizing, we find that today’s young adults are ascribed a mixed stereotype content (Study 1a–1c), subject to harsher social judgments than both older age groups (Study 2) and recollections of former generations at the same age (Study 3a and 3b), and victim of discriminatory behaviors (Study 4 and 5). By comprehensively documenting cognitive, emotional, and behavioral evidence of youngism, the present work challenges the idea that ageism only reflects a plight of later-life aging. Instead, we show not only that ageism can target other age groups but also that the nature and content of ageism vary across the life span.

Is Voting Transformative? Found no impact on voters' political knowledge, attitudes, or behaviors

Is Voting Transformative? Expanding and Meta-Analyzing the Evidence. John B. Holbein, Marcos A. Rangel, Raeal Moore & Michelle Croft. Political Behavior, Aug 20 2021. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-021-09746-2

Abstract: Voting is the foundational act of democracy. While thousands of studies have treated voting as a dependent variable, comparatively little research has studied voting as an independent variable. Here we flip the causal arrow and explore the effect of exogenous voting shocks on citizens’ broader attitudes and behaviors. To do so, we first use two waves from a uniquely large survey of young people in the United States, pairing this with a regression discontinuity design. We augment these results with a new meta-analysis of all causally-identified studies exploring whether voting is transformative. We find that—despite voting at much higher rates—individuals induced to vote, regardless of the mode used to mobilize, are (precisely) no different from all-else-equal individuals that are not. Our results illuminate the (non)consequences of a vitally important—and widely studied—political behavior and speak to the broader importance of voting as an object of study.

Sexual arousal evokes sexual disinhibition (increased self-reported likelihood to engage in uncommon, risky, and coercive sexual activities); among disinhibition indicators: "Can you imagine having sex with a 50-year-old woman/man?"

Sexual Disinhibition Under Sexual Arousal: Evidence for Domain Specificity in Men and Women. Roland Imhoff & Alexander F. Schmidt. Archives of Sexual Behavior volume 43, pages1123–1136, Aug 5 2021. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-014-0329-8

Abstract: Men have been shown to estimate their likelihood of engaging in sexually coercive behaviors and also uncommon and unprotected sexual behaviors as higher when they are in an acute state of sexual arousal. The present research sought to test (1) whether sexual arousal effects could be replicated under more controlled laboratory settings, (2) whether women showed the same pattern of results, and (3) whether this effect was specific to sexual disinhibition or would generalize to non-sexual disinhibited behavior. In two experimental studies, male and female participants (Study 1: N = 84; Study 2: N = 86) were either sexually aroused by acoustically presented erotic narratives or listened to sexually non-arousing neutral narratives. Afterwards, they self-estimated their likelihood of engaging in a variety of behaviors that could be characterized as sexual or non-sexual disinhibited behavior. Results replicated the previously established effect of sexual disinhibition under sexual arousal for men and provided the first evidence for a similar effect in women. No arousal effects were observed for non-sexual behavior, rendering alternative explanations based on mere indifferent responding unlikely. The discussion focused on a plausible explanation for this effect.

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It is important to note here that we propose the term disinhibition as a characterization of the commonality of the three domains: Engaging in uncommon, morally questionable, and unsafe sexual behavior. Importantly, disinhibition here refers to the outcome of reporting greater likelihood of engaging in this behavior (i.e., an outcome that is less constrained by social norms and expectations of what might constitute socially desirable responses), not to the process. In terms of underlying processes, such an outcome may results from either reduced inhibitory processes or stronger approach motivation (see Toates, 2009; for a dual control model of inhibition and excitation, see also Bancroft & Janssen, 2000). Although Ariely and Loewenstein seemed to favor the latter explanation of an increase in the appetitive sexual system, we argue that alternative explanations are conceivable.

What narrative strategies durably reduce prejudice? Omitting analogic perspective-taking and vicarious perspective-giving does not diminish effects; conversations employing only perspective-getting narratives work

Kalla, Joshua, and David Broockman. 2020. “Which Narrative Strategies Durably Reduce Prejudice? Evidence from Field and Survey Experiments Supporting the Efficacy of Perspective-getting.” OSF Preprints. December 28. doi:10.31219/osf.io/z2awt

Abstract: Exclusionary attitudes contribute to social and political challenges worldwide. Previous field experiments have found that interpersonal conversations which employ multiple theoretically-informed narrative strategies can durably reduce exclusionary attitudes. However, studies of these interventions have always assigned three narrative strategies together in a compound treatment: narratives which promote analogic perspective-taking, vicarious perspective-giving, and perspective-getting. This leaves open important theoretical and empirical questions about to what extent each is effective. We present results from two field experiments, a difference-in-differences analysis, and a survey experiment that individually manipulate their presence. Across the field experiments, we find that omitting analogic perspective-taking and vicarious perspective-giving does not diminish effects; conversations employing only perspective-getting narratives durably reduce exclusionary attitudes. We also present results from within-subject analyses and survey experiments that show that perspective-getting consistently reduces exclusionary attitudes and activates multiple mechanisms, whereas the other approaches have less reliable effects. These results support a focus on facilitating perspective-getting in interpersonal conversations that aim to durably reduce exclusionary attitudes.

Psychopathy & personality disorder were not found to be associated with membership in the mafia for either gender; seems more of a mentality characterized by beliefs & practices determined by a deviant culture rather than psychopathology

Women and men of mafia between traditional cultural contexts and new social roles. Felice Carabellese, Alan R. Felthous, Harry G. Kennedy, Domenico Montalbò, Donatell La Tegola, Anna Coluccia, Fabio Ferretti, Fulvio Carabellese, Roberto Catanesi. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, August 19 2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2533

Abstract: The Italian mafia organizations represent a subculture with values, beliefs, and goals that are antithetical to and undermining of the predominant society. The conduct of individual members includes such extreme violence for material gain, it may at least superficially suggest a severe personality disorder. Since the first edition of the DSM and into the 21st century, various terms have been used, sometimes interchangeably, but over time inconsistently, to designate the mentality and practices of mafia members. Only recently has the psychology of mafia members become a focus of serious scientific study. For the first time, investigators for the present study applied instruments, including the PCL-R, to examine for character psychopathology and specifically degrees of psychopathy in male and female mafia members, 20 female and 21 male members. Results showed some gender difference with the women having a higher score on Factor 1, in contrast to men who showed a lower score. Psychopathy and personality disorder were not found to be associated with membership in the mafia for either gender. Some psychopathic traits and gender differences warrant further research. Meanwhile these findings are consistent with a mentality characterized by beliefs and practices determined by a deviant culture rather than psychopathology.

Does testosterone affect men’s willingness to compete, confidence, and risk-taking—dimensions of economic behavior that are theoretically linked to the Challenge Hypothesis? Effects are small and inconsistent

Nave, Gideon, Amos Nadler, Colin Camerer, and Matthias Wibral. 2021. “Does Testosterone Administration Increase Competitiveness, Confidence and Financial Risk-taking in Men?.” PsyArXiv. August 20. doi:10.31234/osf.io/62af7

Abstract: The sex steroid hormone testosterone regulates male-typical behaviors such as aggression and displays of dominance in non-human animals. According to the Challenge Hypothesis, these effects arise from context-sensitive testosterone increases that facilitate inter-male competitions over resources, status, and mates. A growing literature documents similar effects of testosterone on economic behaviors related to competition and risk-taking in humans, though findings to date have been mixed. Here, we report two randomized double-blind placebo-controlled testosterone administration experiments, whose combined sample (N = 334) is substantially larger than any previous investigation of the topic (N1 = 91, N2 = 243). The studies were designed independently by research groups in Europe and the US, and both investigated testosterone’s effects on men’s willingness to compete, confidence, and risk-taking—dimensions of economic behavior that are theoretically linked to the Challenge Hypothesis, show robust sex differences, and predict important real-life outcomes such as career choice. We find no evidence for effects of testosterone on any of the behavioral tasks studied across the two experiments, with effect point estimates that are small and inconsistent. The studies had 90% statistical power to detect effects that are larger than d = 0.68 and d = 0.42 respectively, and equivalence tests confidently reject effects that are greater than these magnitudes. Our findings cast doubt on the proposition that testosterone is a meaningful causal driver of the stereotypically “masculine” dimensions of economic behavior studied, and suggest that even if true effects existed, detecting them experimentally would be challenging.

Does testosterone affect men’s willingness to compete, confidence, and risk-taking—dimensions of economic behavior that are theoretically linked to the Challenge Hypothesis? Small and inconsistent effects

Following the 2020 presidential race, many pundits and academics were quick to claim that the pandemic might have altered the outcome of the election; these authors disagree

Did exposure to COVID-19 affect vote choice in the 2020 presidential election? Marco Mendoza Aviña, Semra Sevi. Research & Politics, August 18, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/20531680211041505

Abstract: An important body of literature shows that citizens evaluate elected officials based on their past performance. In the aftermath of the 2020 presidential election, the conventional wisdom in both media and academic discourse was that Donald Trump would have been a two-term president absent an unprecedented, global force majeure. In this research note, we address a simple question: did exposure to COVID-19 impact vote choice in the 2020 presidential election? Using data from the Cooperative Election Study, we find that Trump’s vote share decreased because of COVID-19. However, there is no evidence suggesting that Joe Biden loses the election when no voter reports exposure to coronavirus cases and deaths. These negligible effects are found at both the national and state levels, and are robust to an exhaustive set of confounders across model specifications.

Keywords: 2020 US presidential election, COVID-19, Biden, Trump, vote choice

Conclusion

Following the 2020 presidential race, many pundits and academics were quick to claim that the pandemic might have altered the outcome of the election. While limited to a single instance of COVID-19’s electoral impact (i.e. self-reported exposure to the virus), our findings do not support the claim that the pandemic cost Trump his re-election. There is no doubt that COVID-19 negatively affected Trump’s electoral performance; yet our counterfactual analysis shows that the presidential two-party vote is virtually unchanged when no voter contracts the disease.⁸ The null finding for those who were personally diagnosed is consistent with previous analyses having found that support for Trump increased in some of the areas that were hardest hit by COVID-19 (McMinn and Stein, 2020). Our results are also consistent with the fact that Trump’s approval ratings were remarkably stable throughout his presidency (FiveThirtyEight, 2021). In early 2020, fewer than 45% of American adults approved of Trump’s job as president. This percentage fluctuated somewhat over the year but remained in the mid-forties until January 2021. This suggests, as our results do, that the extraordinary circumstances that arose during that election year did little to change the electorate’s crystalized – and overall unfavorable – views of the 45th president.

Different names for “natural gas” influence public perception of it: They associate natural gas with “clean” and methane gas with “pollution.”

Different names for “natural gas” influence public perception of it. Karine Lacroix et al. Journal of Environmental Psychology, August 18 2021, 101671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101671

Highlights

•  Americans have strong positive feelings for the term “natural gas.”.

•  Americans have negative views of the alternative terms “methane” and “methane gas.”.

•  They associate natural gas with “clean” and methane gas with “pollution.”.

•  The alternative terms “fossil gas” and “fracked gas” are politically polarized.

Abstract: In many countries, natural gas is perceived more favorably than other fossil fuels. Here, we experimentally test (N = 2931) how perceptions of natural gas vary depending on what it is called. We find that Americans have stronger positive feelings for the term “natural gas” than “natural methane gas” (d = 0.59), “fossil gas” (d = 0.80), “fracked gas” (d = 0.81), “methane” (d = 0.94), and “methane gas” (d = 0.96). Democrats and Republicans both reported more positive views of “natural gas” than “natural methane gas” or “methane [gas].” But the patterns for the two political parties differed for perceptions of “fossil gas” and “fracked gas,” which were both viewed relatively positively by Republicans but negatively by Democrats. Analyses of open-ended word associations found that many participants associated methane with words like “pollution” and “global warming,” whereas they associated natural gas with words like “clean.” The results suggest that the terms used for this fossil fuel have very different meanings among the public, which may affect people's risk perceptions, consumer choices, and support for related policies.

Keywords: Risk perceptionAffectImageryNatural gasMethaneClimate change

Too Good to be Liked? When and How Prosocial Others are Disliked

Too Good to be Liked? When and How Prosocial Others are Disliked. Lucia L.-A. Boileau, David J. Grüning and Herbert Bless. Front. Psychol., August 19 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701689

Abstract: Outstandingly prosocial individuals may not always be valued and admired, but sometimes depreciated and rejected. While prior research has mainly focused on devaluation of highly competent or successful individuals, comparable research in the domain of prosociality is scarce. The present research suggests two mechanisms why devaluation of extreme prosocial individuals may occur: they may (a) constitute very high comparison standards for observers, and may (b) be perceived as communal narcissists. Two experiments test these assumptions. We confronted participants with an extreme prosocial or an ordinary control target and manipulated comparative aspects of the situation (salient vs. non-salient comparison, Experiment 1), and narcissistic aspects of the target (showing off vs. being modest, Experiment 2). Consistent with our assumptions, the extreme prosocial target was liked less than the control target, and even more so when the comparison situation was salient (Experiment 1), and when the target showed off with her good deeds (Experiment 2). Implications that prosociality does not always breed more liking are discussed.

General Discussion

The present research demonstrates that individuals who perform an outstanding degree of prosocial behaviors may be devaluated—due to their prosocial behaviors. Specifically, across two experiments, the prosocial target was liked less than the control target. This consistent pattern is unlikely to be due to participants' perception that the displayed behaviors did not unambiguously reflect prosocial behavior: When explicitly evaluating prosociality, the prosocial target was clearly perceived as prosocial (and more so than the control target). The finding that prosocial behaviors may decrease rather than increase liking seems rather surprising at first glance. Past research suggests that liking and perceptions of prosociality in others are in fact very highly correlated (Imhoff and Koch, 2017). However, the observed devaluation is in line with prior empirical research suggesting that superior prosocial others are indeed sometimes devaluated through rejection and dislike (Fisher et al., 1982; Herrmann et al., 2008; Parks and Stone, 2010; Pleasant and Barclay, 2018).

The present research goes beyond prior research that has similarly demonstrated a possible disliking of prosocial targets by suggesting and investigating two possible underlying processes. Thus, it responds to the call that mediating mechanisms for the dislike of very prosocial targets are yet to be investigated (Parks et al., 2013).

First, the reduced liking of the prosocial target was more pronounced when comparisons between the target and the observers were induced by the information that observers would first evaluate the target and then themselves on the very same items. Eliciting such a comparison expectation increased disliking of the prosocial target. Presumably, in this situation, the extremely prosocial target constituted a very high comparison standard, and this high standard would have negative consequences for participants' evaluations of themselves (Mussweiler, 2003; Bless and Schwarz, 2010; Morina, 2021). This conclusion extends indirect evidence by Parks and Stone (2010) by providing an experimental manipulation of the assumed comparison component.

Second, as predicted, the dislike of the prosocial target was increased when perceptions of communal narcissism (Gebauer et al., 2012; Nehrlich et al., 2019) were elicited by informing participants that the target actively sought to let others know about her prosocial behaviors. This finding suggests that a target's prosocial behavior will not turn into more liking but backfire when that target is perceived as someone who exerts “excessive self-enhancement” in the domain of prosociality and who is showing off with her good deeds (Rentzsch and Gebauer, 2019; p. 1373).

Interestingly, the two proposed accounts (comparison processes, and communal narcissism) may in fact be related. The perception that an individual competes for higher status on the communal dimension (Gebauer et al., 2012) might elicit social comparison processes just as a situation in which comparison is made salient. Communal narcissists do show-off because they want to outperform others—which inevitably entails a comparison. In case the comparison is not only given on the side of the prosocial target but also on the side of the perceiver, one might speculate that we manipulated comparative aspects of the situation in Experiment 1 and comparative aspects of the target in Experiment 2. Such speculation may explain why assessed communal narcissism in Experiment 1 was strongly related to disliking the prosocial target. In turn, eliciting social comparison via the situation might increase perceptions of communal narcissism as a form of target devaluation (cf. Monin, 2007). Note, however, that we did not find a significant interaction effect of target type and comparison salience on perceptions of communal narcissism in Experiment 1.

In combination, the present research provides first evidence on two potential mechanisms to explain the devaluation of very prosocial others. The findings thus provide a first, yet important step, for investigating the processes that lead to the devaluation of prosocial targets.

Open Issues and Caveats

Although the present research offers new insights into the potential devaluation of prosocial others, it is important to address several open issues and caveats. First, one may speculate about the degree of prosocial behavior that is necessary to elicit a dislike of the target (in combination with the comparison component). Of course, prosocial behavior does not necessarily lead to disliking. In this respect, it is important to point out that our target was very outstanding with respect to prosocial behavior. Thus, to elicit devaluation, the target might have to be perceived as “too good” or “too perfect” (note that self-devaluation tends to be elicited when the outstanding other is perceived as unreachable; Lockwood and Kunda, 1997). Evidence in this respect has been reported for the ability domain demonstrating that a superior target was liked more than an average person—if the superior target displayed some imperfections in other domains (Aronson et al., 1966). Further research is needed to address this issue systematically in the prosocial domain.

Second, our conclusion on the crucial role of comparison processes for the dislike of outstanding prosocial targets matches with research on the devaluation of targets that outperform others in the domain of performance and abilities (Pleban and Tesser, 1981; Salovey and Rodin, 1984; Alicke et al., 1997; Alicke, 2000; Lassiter and Munhall, 2001). The present findings thus suggest that similar processes may cause devaluation of both oustandingly capable, and outstandingly prosocial individuals (for a discussion of different, yet overlapping conceptualizations of ability vs. prosociality, see, e.g., Fiske et al., 2007; Gebauer et al., 2014; Abele et al., 2016). Similarly, these processes may also cause devaluation of outstandingly moral individuals (e.g., Monin et al., 2008; Minson and Monin, 2012). Importantly, despite some overlaps, prosociality and morality are not the same. Morality comprises being loyal, fair, law-abiding, and pure (Graham et al., 2013)—aspects that are at least partly independent of prosociality. However, given the similar patterns of dislike observed for superior targets in these various domains, it seems worthwhile to investigate communalities and differences between prosociality and morality in their underlying mechanisms.

Third, we did not find complementary patterns for perceived communal narcissism vs. perceived modesty in Experiment 2. The obtained findings do not allow for an answer to this issue. With respect to the concept of narcissism it might be interesting to investigate whether narcissism and modesty are located on different sides of the same dimension or whether the two concepts are at least partly unrelated to each other (for a discussion of the humility and grandiose narcissism dimension, see Miller et al., 2012; Gebauer and Sedikides, 2019). This relation might also depend on whether narcissism and modesty are measured via self-reports or other-reports. Interestingly, while self-rated communal narcissism has been conceptualized and investigated (Gebauer et al., 2012; Nehrlich et al., 2019), the perception of communal narcissism in others has so far received little systematic investigation (Rentzsch and Gebauer, 2019).

Fourth, the crucial interaction of target type and communal narcissism (i.e., show-off vs. modest condition) in Experiment 2 did not reach the conventional level of significance when tested two-sided. We readily acknowledge this aspect. Note, however, that we pre-registered our study so that one-sided tests statistics could potentially be applied. Due to the unexpected drop out (due to the attention check, see above) the conducted analyses were presumably underpowered, which constitutes a common problem in the field of psychological research (Maxwell, 2004).

Fifth, the reduced liking of the outstandingly prosocial target reflects a contrast effect. General models on context effects in social judgment (cf. Bless and Schwarz, 2010) hold that—under specified conditions—contrast effects may turn in assimilation effects. We readily subscribe to this possibility. One condition that might apply to the present research could rest in the perceived similarity between target and perceiver. In case perceivers assume a high overlap between themselves and the target, they may derive positive implications for themselves rather than devaluating the target (e.g., basking in the reflected glory, Cialdini and DeNicholas, 1989; see also Brown et al., 1992; for an overview on assimilation vs. contrast effects, see Bless and Schwarz, 2010).

Sixth, our sample predominantly consisted of females. As our target was female as well, this might have influenced our results (e.g., see Espinosa and Kovárík, 2015), for gender differences in prosocial behavior). To address this issue, further research needs to test potential gender differences in the evaluation of outstandingly prosocial others.

Finally, it needs to be pointed out that we minimized the potential ambiguity of the prosocial behavior. One could speculate that other devaluation mechanisms (i.e., denying prosociality, ascribing lower competence, etc.) might be at work when the prosocial behavior is more ambiguous and more open to interpretations.

Outlook

While readily acknowledging the open issues addressed above, we strongly believe that the present research addresses important issues. We consistently demonstrated that performing prosocial behaviors may lead to reduced liking. Moreover, we showed that the reduced liking of prosocial individuals is triggered by both comparison processes and perceptions of communal narcissism. The present set of studies therefore show, to our knowledge, the first direct evidence on underlying mechanisms in the devaluation of very prosocial others and provide a basis for future research.

Leaving the laboratory situation, the obtained findings suggest that performing prosocial behaviors is no guarantee to be liked. In fact, in some instances, individuals may be disliked because of their prosocial behaviors. This observation is in line with the ambiguously connoted term “do-gooder,” which on the one hand describes the target's “desire and effort to help people” but on the other hand, points out to potential evaluations of the target's behavior as “wrong,” or “annoying” (see Merriam-Webster, n.d.). We assume that the ambivalence of the term “do-gooder” is rather widespread. If so, research needs to pay more attention to the devaluation of prosocial others, as it might constitute a potential obstacle to individuals' motivation for prosocial behavior.