Tuesday, August 24, 2021

How are gene variants associated with same-sex sexual behaviour maintained in the gene pool? New study suggests that the same variants, when found in individuals who don't engage in SSSB behavior, are associated with having more sexual partners

Genomic evidence consistent with antagonistic pleiotropy may help explain the evolutionary maintenance of same-sex sexual behaviour in humans. Brendan P. Zietsch, Morgan J. Sidari, Abdel Abdellaoui, Robert Maier, Niklas Långström, Shengru Guo, Gary W. Beecham, Eden R. Martin, Alan R. Sanders & Karin J. H. Verweij. Nature Human Behaviour, August 23 2021. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-021-01168-8

Abstract: Human same-sex sexual behaviour (SSB) is heritable, confers no immediately obvious direct reproductive or survival benefit and can divert mating effort from reproductive opportunities. This presents a Darwinian paradox: why has SSB been maintained despite apparent selection against it? We show that genetic effects associated with SSB may, in individuals who only engage in opposite-sex sexual behaviour (OSB individuals), confer a mating advantage. Using results from a recent genome-wide association study of SSB and a new genome-wide association study on number of opposite-sex sexual partners in 358,426 individuals, we show that, among OSB individuals, genetic effects associated with SSB are associated with having more opposite-sex sexual partners. Computer simulations suggest that such a mating advantage for alleles associated with SSB could help explain how it has been evolutionarily maintained. Caveats include the cultural specificity of our UK and US samples, the societal regulation of sexual behaviour in these populations, the difficulty of measuring mating success and the fact that measured variants capture a minority of the total genetic variation in the traits.

Popular version: Genetic patterns offer clues to evolution of homosexuality. Sara Reardon. Nature News, Aug 23 2021. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02312-0


Acute scarcity significantly increases the propensity to engage in unethical economic behavior; find no evidence that chronic experiences of scarcity in the form of low social class affect unethical economic behavior

Material Scarcity and Unethical Economic Behavior: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Christian Elbaek, Panagiotis Mitkidis, Lene Aarøe, Tobias Otterbring. Pre-print, Aug 2021. DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-800481/v1

Abstract: Individuals around the globe experience different forms of material resource scarcity in terms of aspects such as hunger, thirst, or financial strains. As experiences of material scarcity have been found to make individuals more risk-taking, impulsive, and focused on regaining resources in the short-term, a growing body of research has investigated how such scarcity affects moral economic behavior. Yet, findings remain mixed and at times contradictory, thus calling for a systematic meta-analytical review on this overarching topic. In this pre-registered systematic review and meta-analysis, we evaluate qualitatively and quantitatively how material resource scarcity affects moral economic behavior. We analyze a comprehensive dataset including 44 published and unpublished studies comprising a total of 6,921 respondents across four distinct types of material scarcity: financial scarcity, physiological scarcity, scarcity reminders, and lower social class. Our findings show that acute scarcity significantly increases the propensity to engage in unethical economic behavior (gfinancial = .24, gphysiological = .39, greminders = .32). Importantly, we find no evidence that chronic experiences of scarcity in the form of low social class affect unethical economic behavior (gsocial class = .02). These results appear robust to the influence of publication bias and contextual sensitivity. We discuss how these findings advance our understanding of the psychological and moral consequences of scarcity and elaborate on implications for public policy.

KEYWORDS: resource scarcity, socioeconomic status, morality, unethical economic behavior, meta-analysis


From 2010... Lesions and Behavior Associated with Forced Copulation of Juvenile Pacific Harbor Seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) by Adult Southern Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris nereis)

Lesions and Behavior Associated with Forced Copulation of Juvenile Pacific Harbor Seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) by Southern Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris nereis). Heather S. Harris et al. Aquatic Mammals Journal, 36(4), 331-341, November 29 2010. DOI: 10.1578/AM.36.4.2010.331

Abstract: Nineteen occurrences of interspecific sexual behavior between male southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) and juvenile Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) were reported in Monterey Bay, California, between 2000 and 2002. At least three different male sea otters were observed harassing, dragging, guarding, and copulating with harbor seals for up to 7 d postmortem. Carcasses of 15 juvenile harbor seals were recovered, and seven were necropsied in detail by a veterinary pathologist. Necropsy findings from two female sea otters that were recovered dead from male sea otters exhibiting similar behavior are also presented to facilitate a comparison of lesions. The most frequent lesions included superficial skin lacerations; hemorrhage around the nose, eyes, flippers, and perineum; and traumatic corneal erosions or ulcers. The harbor seals sustained severe genital trauma, ranging from vaginal perforation to vagino-cervical transection, and colorectal perforations as a result of penile penetration. One harbor seal developed severe pneumoperitoneum subsequent to vaginal perforation, which was also observed in both female sea otters and has been reported as a postcoital lesion in humans. This study represents the first description of lesions resulting from forced copulation of harbor seals by sea otters and is also the first report of pneumoperitoneum secondary to forced copulation in a nonhuman animal. Possible explanations for this behavior are discussed in the context of sea otter biology and population demographics.

Key Words: sea otter, Enhydra lutris nereis, harbor seal, Phoca vitulina richardsi, forced copulation, interspecific sexual behavior, mating trauma, pneumoperitoneum

Introduction

Sexual interactions between species have been well-documented among marine mammals (Wilson, 1975; Best et al., 1981; Harcourt, 1993; Hatfield et al., 1994; Miller et al., 1996; Mortenson & Follis, 1997; Cassini, 1998; Hayward, 2003). Such behavior has occasionally been observed among pinnipeds with overlapping breeding seasons that share the same rookeries, providing ample opportunities for interaction between adult or subadult males and heterospecific females (Miller et al., 1996). Documentation of hybrid offspring within mixed colonies of otariids (Miller et al., 1996) and phocids (Kovacs et al., 1997) further supports the occurrence of breeding events between pinniped species. 

Reports also exist of interspecific sexual interactions occurring outside of the normal breeding season in which a single aggressive male opportunistically copulated with females or pups during periods when conspecific males were not present (Wilson, 1975; Best et al., 1981; Miller et al., 1996; Mortenson & Follis, 1997; Hayward, 2003). Large-scale mortality has resulted when females and juveniles were physically overpowered and forcibly copulated by much larger heterospecific males (Best et al., 1981; Miller et al., 1996; Mortenson & Follis, 1997; Cassini, 1998). In some cases, male pinnipeds have approached their subjects on land or in the water, mounted and attempted copulation (Wilson, 1975; Best et al., 1981; Harcourt, 1993; Miller et al., 1996; Mortenson & Follis, 1997; Hayward, 2003), killed the subject (Best et al., 1981; Harcourt, 1993; Miller et al., 1996; Mortenson & Follis, 1997), and then continued to guard and copulate with the carcass (Best et al., 1981; Miller et al., 1996).

[...]

Discussion

The behavioral observations and lesions described in this study are extreme examples of the spectrum of mating-associated trauma observed in southern sea otters. Copulation normally occurs in the water where the male sea otter will approach the female from behind, grip her around the chest with his forepaws, and grasp her nose or the side of her face with his teeth (Kenyon, 1969; Staedler & Riedman, 1993). Females often initially resist copulatory attempts, but eventually will submit, and the pair may roll and spin in the water, with the male positioned dorsal to the female during copulation (Kenyon, 1969). Immature males sometimes mimic this pre-copulatory behavior while playing with each other, including facial biting, spinning nose to nose, and mounting each other from behind (M. Staedler, unpub. data, 2000-2010).

Facial biting by the male commonly results in the development of skin and soft tissue lacerations of the female’s nose and face that can occasionally be fatal (Foott, 1970; Staedler & Riedman, 1993). Trauma associated with mating was a primary or contributing cause of death for 11% of fresh dead southern sea otters examined between 2000 and 2003 (Kreuder et al., 2003). In one prior report on breeding-associated mortality, a tagged territorial male sea otter held a struggling female underwater until her body became limp and then copulated repeatedly with her carcass (Staedler & Riedman, 1993). Ten months later, this same male was observed with the carcass of another female sea otter. In both cases, the male was swimming, diving, guarding, and copulating with the carcass.  In other marine mammal species, females and juveniles of both sexes are sometimes injured or killed during mating attempts by male conspecifics (Campagna et al., 1988; Le Boeuf & Mesnick, 1991; Rose et al., 1991; Staedler & Riedman, 1993; Atkinson et al., 1994; Kiyota & Okamura, 2005).  A male-biased adult sex ratio might increase the probability of these aggressive and sometimes fatal interactions (Le Boeuf & Mesnick, 1991).  Mobbing, in which a group of males attempts to mount a single adult female or an immature seal of either sex, has been documented for Hawaiian monk seals (Monachus schauinslandi) (Johanos & Kam, 1986; Atkinson et al., 1994; Johanos et al., 1994). Associated with severe, sometimes fatal skin and soft tissue lacerations to the dorsal integument (Johanos et al., 1994), mobbing has most often been observed in monk seal populations that have a greater ratio of subadult and adult males compared to breeding-age females (Hiruki et al., 1993).

In the polygynous mating systems of sea otters and many pinnipeds, males typically establish a dominance hierarchy based on age, size, and relative fitness such that subdominant males will have limited access to receptive females of the same species (Le Boeuf, 1972, 1974). Where species overlap geographically, interspecific sexual interactions could be the result of a subdominant male seeking a female surrogate. Male southern sea otters become sexually mature at approximately 5 y of age, although often they are unable to successfully defend territories for several more years (Riedman & Estes, 1990). Sexually mature male sea otters may establish and defend aquatic territories in kelp-dominated regions with high female density from which they exclude all other males except dependent pups and recently weaned immature sea otters. Subadult and adult males that are unable to establish territories are usually segregated from reproductive females and territorial males, aggregating with other nonterritorial males in “male areas” that occur at several locations throughout the range, often in sand-bottom habitats like Monterey Bay (Jameson, 1989; Riedman & Estes, 1990). Many nonterritorial male sea otters frequently move long distances between male areas and travel in winter toward the range peripheries where food resources might be more abundant (Jameson, 1989; Tinker et al., 2008).  During the 5 to 10 y leading up to this study, increases in age-specific mortality have disproportionately affected females, with the result that the sex ratio has become skewed toward males (Tinker et al., 2006). An increasingly male-biased sex ratio might have elevated the likelihood of intragender conflicts, including aggressive, forced matings that could result in significant morbidity and mortality. This gender shift in the sea otter population may have triggered the increased aggregation of transient, nonterritorial males in the Monterey Bay region throughout the study period, particularly around Moss Landing. The majority of observed forced copulatory events occurred in Elkhorn Slough in Moss Landing, a region characterized by both a major harbor seal rookery and a large population of nonterritorial male sea otters.  Both tagged males that engaged in sexual behavior with harbor seals in the present study appeared to be nonterritorial transients based on direct observation of behavior over prolonged periods. These subdominant sea otters would have been denied access to female conspecifics by territorial males and may have simply redirected normal sexual responses toward sympatric phocids.  In the current study, strong links were established between observed interspecific copulatory behavior displayed by male sea otters toward harbor seals and specific lesions found during necropsy of the affected harbor seals. The distribution of superficial wounds in harbor seals preferentially over the nose, eyes, and sides of the face and neck is consistent with typical sea otter mating behavior and correlates with notes from direct observation of these interactions. Based on prior reports (Wilson, 1975; Best et al., 1981; Miller et al., 1996; Mortenson & Follis, 1997; Hayward, 2003), pinniped-initiated mating trauma typically has a more dorsal wound distribution because males grasp females from behind with their front flippers; bite them on the dorsal surface of the head, neck, and body to position them; and use the weight of their bodies on land to restrain females to facilitate copulation (Cline et al., 1971; Le Boeuf, 1972; Allen, 1985; Rose et al., 1991).

Limited postmortem examinations of victims of forced copulatory behavior between pinniped species revealed bleeding skin and soft tissue lacerations and hemorrhage on the dorsal aspect of the head and nape (Miller et al., 1996; Mortenson & Follis, 1997), skull fractures with subcutaneous hemorrhage and ocular proptosis (Miller et al., 1996), chest compression or collapse (Best et al., 1981; Miller et al., 1996), and bruising of the distal vagina (Miller et al., 1996), including one female whose intestines were forced out through the anus as a result of crush injury (Best et al., 1981). Ocular trauma, noted in six harbor seals, is an uncommon mating-associated lesion in female sea otters, presumably because sea otter eyes are much smaller and protrude less from the orbit than those of harbor seals. For affected harbor seals, vision loss due to ocular trauma might have restricted their ability to forage and to evade further attacks by male sea otters.  Nine animals examined in depth exhibited vaginal and/or colorectal perforation, which provides strong presumptive evidence for forced copulation.  Although spermatozoa were not observed in the rectum/colon or vaginal tract on cytology or histopathology, the ejaculate could have been forced into the abdominal cavity or diluted by seawater or body fluids; the males might not have ejaculated; or they might not have been producing spermatozoa. All of these factors could be an effect of immaturity, advanced age, or incomplete species-specific copulatory behavior. In both harbor seals and sea otters, vaginal perforations and avulsions were invariably located at the junction of the vagina with the cervix as would be predicted with traumatic perforation due to forced penetration, particularly for immature harbor seals with small reproductive tracts. In contrast, perforations of the more fragile, thinnerwalled gastrointestinal tract were often multiple and were spaced at variable sites along the distal colon and rectum. The average length for an adult male sea otter os penis is 15 cm (Kenyon, 1969), which correlates well with the depths of the perforations. As demonstrated by HS 14, penetration of the penis through the intestinal wall can result in severe bleeding and leakage of feces into the pelvic cavity and abdomen, leading to septic peritonitis.

One surprising lesion that was observed only in female harbor seals and sea otters was the development of acute, severe pneumoperitoneum in animals with vaginal and/or gastrointestinal perforations. Forced copulation resulted in the passage of air from the vaginal lumen or rectum into the abdomen. These perforations appear to have functioned as one-way valves in some cases, allowing air that was forced in during and after copulation to become trapped in the peritoneum under high pressure. This resulted in a severely distended, tympanic abdominal wall and marked cranial displacement of the diaphragm, leading to tension pneumoperitoneum and increased intraabdominal pressure. The end result was restricted diaphragmatic movement, compression of the thoracic cavity, and severe pulmonary atelectasis. In addition, secondary compression of the vena cava, as seen in SO 2, can also limit venous return, resulting in hypotension, hypoxia, and, in severe cases, acute respiratory distress and circulatory collapse (Kim et al., 2000). In all three cases, the diaphragm was displaced so far cranially and the thoracic cavity so tightly compressed by highpressure air in the abdomen, it was deemed to be acutely life threatening. As observed for SO 1 while alive, free peritoneal air can also significantly increase buoyancy and negatively impact an animal’s ability to dive and forage.

All three animals with pneumoperitoneum exhibited perforation or avulsion of the vaginal tract. One sea otter with pneumoperitoneum had perforations of both the vagina and distal colon, but none of the harbor seals with only colorectal perforations exhibited pneumoperitoneum, indicating that development of tension pneumoperitoneum was more closely associated with vaginal perforation in these animals. However, gastrointestinal perforation cannot be excluded as a potential cause of pneumoperitoneum. In humans, pneumoperitoneum has been reported secondary to colorectal perforation during colonoscopy (Marwan et al., 2007) and introduction of compressed air into the rectum (Kim et al., 2000) but has not been reported in association with anal intercourse.  Interestingly, postcoital pneumoperitoneum also has been reported in humans after vigorous sexual intercourse, both secondary to vaginal perforation (Lal et al., 2001; Manchanda & Refaie, 2005) and with an intact vaginal wall (Angel et al., 1988; Johnson et al., 2002). Patients have presented with abdominal distention, abdominal tenderness, vomiting, shoulder pain, dyspnea, and pain on inspiration. In all cases, radiographs revealed free intraperitoneal gas beneath the diaphragm. During sexual intercourse, the penis functioned like a piston, creating a closed system that forced air through a vaginal tear into the peritoneum (Lal et al., 2001; Manchanda & Refaie, 2005); or through the cervix, into the uterus, and out through the fallopian tubes (Angel et al., 1988; Johnson et al., 2002). In humans, this latter event might occur as a result of penile-vaginal disproportion (Manchanda & Refaie, 2005), or for patients in the recent postpartum period (4 to 9 wks postpartum), the cervix could be sufficiently dilated to facilitate passage of air into the uterus during coitus (Angel et al., 1988; Johnson et al., 2002). This could have been a contributing factor for both SO 1 (10 wks postpartum) and SO 2 (dilated cervical os and full-term fetus in the pelvic canal at the time of forced copulation).

[...]

Depression & complexity: Beyond the topics (low energy & sleep issues), people experience different symptoms, with different levels of severity, at different times in their lives, with episodes that last different lengths of time

Depression is complicated – this is how our understanding of the condition has evolved over time. Saloni Dattani. Our World In Data, August 19, 2021 https://ourworldindata.org/what-is-depression

Summary

Depression is the most common mental health condition in the world, so understanding it has major consequences for a large number of people. But our recognition of the condition was murky until recently. The intricacies of the condition are becoming clearer because of the development of wider surveys, granular scales and more rigorous analysis. We have a better idea of what people experience and how their condition progresses over time.

What we know now is that depression is surprisingly complicated. Low energy and sleeping problems are the most common symptoms. But people with depression experience different symptoms, with different levels of severity, at different times in their lives, with episodes that last different lengths of time. In this post, we’ll explore how researchers have surveyed depression in the general population and how they have developed tools to measure depression. Then we’ll look at what we know about depression today.

Let’s look at each of these factors in more detail before we explore how they have informed our understanding of depression.

→ Surveying depression in the general population

→ Measuring depression on levels

→ Analyzing depression with more rigour

→ Sleeping problems and low energy tend to be the most common symptoms of depression

→ People experience different combinations of symptoms

→ Depression is an umbrella condition which contains subtypes

→ The symptoms of depression tend to change over time

→ Episodes of depression can occur frequently

→ Episodes of depression can last a long time

→ Depression is complicated


Moral universalism (the extent to which people exhibit the same level of altruism and trust toward strangers as toward in-group members): Have fewer friends, spend less time with them, and feel more lonely

Moral Universalism: Measurement and Economic Relevance. Benjamin Enke, Ricardo Rodríguez-Padilla, Florian Zimmermann. Management Science, Aug 10 2021. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2021.4086

Abstract: Many applied economic settings involve trade-offs between in-group members and strangers. To better understand decision making in these contexts, this paper measures and investigates the economic relevance of heterogeneity in moral universalism: the extent to which people exhibit the same level of altruism and trust toward strangers as toward in-group members. We first introduce a new experimentally validated, survey-based measure of moral universalism that is simple and easily scalable. We then deploy this tool in a large, representative sample of the U.S. population to study heterogeneity and economic relevance. We find that universalism is a relatively stable trait at the individual level. In exploratory analyses, heterogeneity in universalism is significantly related to observables: Older people, men, the rich, the rural, and the religious exhibit less universalist preferences and beliefs. Linking variation in universalism to self-reports of economic and social behaviors, we document the following correlations. Universalists donate less money locally, but more globally, and are less likely to exhibit home bias in equity and educational investments. In terms of social networks, universalists have fewer friends, spend less time with them, and feel more lonely. These results provide a blueprint for measuring moral universalism in applied settings and suggest that variation in universalism is relevant for understanding a myriad of economic behaviors.



Why are heavily regulated European labor markets associated with a smaller share of women in top management positions compared with liberal market economies such as in the US?

The Dilemma of Gender Equality: How Labor Market Regulation Divides Women by Class. Torben Iversen, Frances McCall Rosenbluth, Øyvind Skorge. Daedalus (2020) 149 (1): 86–99. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_01775

Abstract: Women shoulder a heavier burden of family work than men in modern society, preventing them from matching male success in the external labor market. Limiting working hours is a plausible way to level the playing field by creating the possibility of less gendered roles for both sexes. But why then are heavily regulated European labor markets associated with a smaller share of women in top management positions compared with liberal market economies such as in the United States? We explain this puzzle with reference to the difficulty of ambitious women to signal their commitment to high-powered careers in regulated markets.

Despite a large influx of women into mainly service sector jobs over the past four decades, women continue to be underrepresented in the labor market, and they earn less on average than men. These gender differences are almost certainly linked to greater de facto responsibilities of women in child-rearing and household work, but there are major and intriguing differences across rich democracies.

In low- and mid-level jobs, the differences are fairly well understood. In Europe, union bargaining and wage compression put a higher floor under the lowest paid jobs where women disproportionately find themselves in every country. The gender gap in wages is smaller in Europe as a result, although another reason could be that low-productivity jobs may be scarcer. Regulated working hours, compatible with work-family balance, complements family-friendly policies such as public subsidization of childcare. Yet if this broadly accepted story is accurate, we should also expect the number of female managers of large firms and university-educated professionals to be rising as we travel from the United States and the United Kingdom to continental Europe and further north to Scandinavia. In fact, the reverse is true. Although the number is small everywhere, the share of women in high-powered private sector careers in the United States significantly exceeds that in Germany or Denmark. The explanation cannot be the long hours and inflexible schedules of professional work, since this is equally true in the United States. Also of no help are theories of occupational performance that predict greater female success in jobs requiring relationship management and multitasking, since these criteria characterize managerial jobs across the United States and Europe.

Our explanation instead focuses on unintended consequences: regulations that curtail working hours at nonmanagerial levels discourage employers from promoting women to higher levels, given that they have incomplete information about candidates. To employers who can measure productivity only imperfectly, long working hours are a signal – though a noisy one – of expected productivity and therefore of suitability for many kinds of higher-level managerial jobs. Labor market regulations tend to equalize both wages and employment opportunities for men and women when productivity is linked to hours worked, but it has the perverse effect of intensifying statistical discrimination against women in highend jobs, even when these jobs are themselves unregulated. This logic explains the opposite effects of working-hours regulation at the low and high ends of the occupational hierarchy. Sadly, all good things do not go together, and labor market regulations produce good and bad results at the same time.

We begin by distinguishing jobs along three dimensions: 1) whether hours worked are positively associated with (hourly) productivity; 2) whether there are ample opportunities for promotions based on competition rather than seniority; and 3) whether working hours are regulated (restricted) below the management level.

As a general matter, low- and mid-level jobs may or may not be regulated in terms of working hours and wages, whereas top-end jobs are typically unregulated. While both women and men may have equal levels of ambition, family responsibilities are borne disproportionately by women in a way that reduces, on average, their availability to work around the clock (see Figure 1).


Monday, August 23, 2021

Rhesus monkeys also choke under pressure; this indicates that there may be shared neural mechanisms that underlie the behavior in both humans and monkeys

Monkeys exhibit a paradoxical decrease in performance in high-stakes scenarios. Adam L. Smoulder et al.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, August 31, 2021 118 (35) e2109643118; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2109643118

Significance: Choking under pressure is a frustrating phenomenon experienced sometimes by skilled performers as well as during everyday life. The phenomenon has been extensively studied in humans, but it has not been previously shown whether animals also choke under pressure. Here we report that rhesus monkeys also choke under pressure. This indicates that there may be shared neural mechanisms that underlie the behavior in both humans and monkeys. Introducing an animal model for choking under pressure allows for opportunities to study the neural causes of this paradoxical behavior.

Abstract: In high-stakes situations, people sometimes exhibit a frustrating phenomenon known as “choking under pressure.” Usually, we perform better when the potential payoff is larger. However, once potential rewards get too high, performance paradoxically decreases—we “choke.” Why do we choke under pressure? An animal model of choking would facilitate the investigation of its neural basis. However, it could be that choking is a uniquely human occurrence. To determine whether animals also choke, we trained three rhesus monkeys to perform a difficult reaching task in which they knew in advance the amount of reward to be given upon successful completion. Like humans, monkeys performed worse when potential rewards were exceptionally valuable. Failures that occurred at the highest level of reward were due to overly cautious reaching, in line with the psychological theory that explicit monitoring of behavior leads to choking. Our results demonstrate that choking under pressure is not unique to humans, and thus, its neural basis might be conserved across species.


Keywords: motor controlrewardanimal behaviorreachingmotivation


Despite commonly experiencing empathy in daily life, older adults are not more prosocial than other age cohorts

Pollerhoff, Lena, Julia Stietz, Gregory J. Depow, Michael Inzlicht, Philipp Kanske, Shu-Chen Li, and Andrea M. Reiter. 2021. “Investigating Adult Age Differences in Real-life Empathy, Prosociality, and Well-being Using Experience Sampling.” PsyArXiv. August 23. doi:10.31234/osf.io/983ey

Abstract: While the importance of social affect and cognition is indisputable throughout the adult lifespan, findings of how empathy and prosociality develop and interact across adulthood are mixed, and real-life data are scarce. Research using ecological momentary assessment recently demonstrated that adults commonly experience empathy in daily life. Furthermore, predictors of empathy were linked to higher prosocial behavior and subjective well-being. However, to date, it is not clear whether there are adult age differences in daily empathy and daily prosociality and whether age moderates the relationship between empathy and prosociality across adulthood. Here we analyzed experience-sampling data collected from participants across the adult lifespan to study age effects on empathy, prosocial behavior, and well-being under real-life circumstances. Linear and quadratic age effects were found for the experience of empathy, with increased empathy across the three younger age groups (18 to 45 years) and a slight decrease in the oldest group (55 years and older). Neither prosocial behavior nor well-being showed significant age-related differences. We discuss these findings with respect to (partially discrepant) results derived from lab-based or traditional survey studies. We conclude that studies linking in-lab experiments with real-life experience-sampling might be a promising venue for future lifespan studies.




Residues of glyphosate in food and dietary exposure

Residues of glyphosate in food and dietary exposure. John L. Vicini, Pamela K. Jensen, Bruce M. Young, John T. Swarthout. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, August 16 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12822

Abstract: Glyphosate is the active ingredient in Roundup® brand nonselective herbicides, and residue testing for food has been conducted as part of the normal regulatory processes. Additional testing has been conducted by university researchers and nongovernmental agencies. Presence of residues needs to be put into the context of safety standards. Furthermore, to appropriately interpret residue data, analytical assays must be validated for each food sample matrix. Regulatory agency surveys indicate that 99% of glyphosate residues in food are below the European maximum residue limits (MRLs) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency tolerances. These data support the conclusion that overall residues are not elevated above MRLs/tolerances due to agricultural practices or usage on genetically modified (GM) crops. However, it is important to understand that MRLs and tolerances are limits for legal pesticide usage. MRLs only provide health information when the sum of MRLs of all foods is compared to limits established by toxicology studies, such as the acceptable daily intake (ADI). Conclusions from dietary modeling that use actual food residues, or MRLs themselves, combined with consumption data indicate that dietary exposures to glyphosate are within established safe limits. Measurements of glyphosate in urine can also be used to estimate ingested glyphosate exposure, and studies indicate that exposure is <3% of the current European ADI for glyphosate, which is 0.5 mg glyphosate/kg body weight. Conclusions of risk assessments, based on dietary modeling or urine data, are that exposures to glyphosate from food are well below the amount that can be ingested daily over a lifetime with a reasonable certainty of no harm.

7 DISCUSSION

Calculating dietary consumption of glyphosate can be done using two disparate methods. In the first method, residues are measured in individual food items and these are summed based on consumption data for the foods that people eat. This approach requires answering several questions to make reasonable assumptions used in the modeling such as: (1) what residue value for a food is used; (2) is the food processed or cooked; (3) what residue value is used when an analyte's concentration is < LOD; (4) are mean, median, or 90th percentile values used for consumption; and (5) what and how much do people eat? In the second approach, for a pesticide like glyphosate with the knowledge of absorption from the gut, lack of metabolism, and elimination from the body, sampling of urine is an accurate way to calculate ingestion and exposure within the body (Acquavella et al., 2004; Niemann et al., 2015). Regardless of which of the two methods is used, these values need to be compared to a safety standard, such as the ADI or RfD, which are regulatory-derived safety standards. Results of determining exposure to glyphosate by dietary modeling or urinary glyphosate are presented in Table 5, Table 6, and Figure 2. Modeling allows different scenarios using estimates of consumption and data derived from market surveys, whereas urine is a surrogate for estimating actual dietary exposure to glyphosate. The results from these two methods are in relatively close agreement. Dietary estimates range from 0.03% to 18% depending on assumptions. An especially critical assumption used is the residue levels that are used. Urinary glyphosate estimates of exposure are 0.02%–2.67% of the ADI, which do not require an assumption about residue on individual foods.

In spite of that, testing and publishing about glyphosate residues, whether in peer-reviewed journals, by internet postings or in the news media, has become somewhat common in the last decade. Unfortunately, many of the popular press reports are accompanied by value-judgment words like “high” or “contaminate,” or they make scientifically inappropriate comparisons to other standards (i.e., concentrations in urine vs. regulatory defined residue levels for drinking water). Furthermore, some of these reports imply that glyphosate residues were not known to exist previously in a given food or in urine, and, therefore the findings are regarded as novel. Recent publications, such as Winter and Jara (2015), Winter et al. (2019), and Reeves et al. (2019), have attempted to provide more information about the process for risk assessment of pesticides conducted by regulatory agencies. Moreover, timely communications from regulatory agencies, such as BfR responding to reports of residues in food, German beer, or urine (BfR, 20162017), provide helpful information from what should be a trustworthy source in the face of widespread social media communications about food and agriculture (Ryan et al., 2020).

One statistic that is often encountered in publications that also might generate concern by consumers is reports of increased trends over time of usage of a pesticide, either by expanded adoption or as the result of new technology, such as herbicide-tolerant crops (Benbrook, 2016). These statistics intimate that pesticide use has exceeded safe levels established by the original regulatory assessments. In one residue study, the authors suggested that it appeared that MRL values were adjusted due to actual observed increases and not based on toxicity (Bøhn et al., 2014). This is precisely how MRLs are derived. It is important to highlight that alterations in the use of a previously approved pesticide, such as usage of glyphosate on newly approved GT crops, require new residue data to be submitted from the pesticide registrant(s) prior to regulatory approval. These new residue data are reviewed by regulators in order to ensure that the previous ADI or RfD is not exceeded. Additionally, MRLs or tolerances are derived from empirical data of real-world conditions and, once established, MRLs represent for any crop the agricultural practice that results in the highest residue. EPA (1996) stated in their guidance that pesticide use patterns, such as changes in the preharvest interval and/or postharvest treatment, are likely to require residue studies, and potentially another petition for a new tolerance. Expanded usage of a pesticide might change, but by conservatively assuming that 100% of a crop will use the agricultural practice with the highest residue, exposure remaining below the ADI is not subject to changes in commercial adoption. If a new exposure resulted in the sum of all exposures exceeding the ADI, there would need to be a restriction in some use. Moreover, since regulatory authorities use data collected prior to authorization of cultivation or import of the crop, combined with periodic testing to ensure that tolerances are not being exceeded, these media reports of residues do not necessarily provide unexpected data. When properly conducted, independent, peer-reviewed studies are published, they can be a corroboration of the accuracy of previously reported regulatory residue studies.

Putting pesticide residues into context by converting these values to percentages of the EFSA- or EPA-derived ADI or RfD helps one understand the margin of safety, but many consumers want food that is free of synthetic pesticides (Krystallis & Chryssohoidis, 2005). According to Currie (1999), many believe that with improved assays, a concentration of zero might be detected, but that is scientifically not feasible.

More than ever, as in other areas of science, transparency on residues of pesticides and their assessment by global regulatory authorities entrusted by the public to ensure food safety is needed to address complex scientific information (OECD, 2020). The scientific publication process that requires peer-review of the data and conclusions has largely provided the basis for science-based regulatory assessments for the past century (Codex, 2004) . Although peer-review is not a foolproof process, it is a process with the intent of ensuring that results and conclusions from published studies are based on well-conducted and documented scientific experiments. This is in sharp contrast to the essentially unreviewed environment of media and online publications. Adequacy of peer review is increasingly more confusing with predatory journals and electronic publishing (Kelly et al., 2014). Since the public lacks training to help them distinguish information from peer-reviewed journals and science-based regulatory authorities from information they see in media reports and predatory journals, this review has included results on glyphosate residues from both sources to provide them with a single-point reference for an informed discussion of this subject.

Less intelligent Americans & British voters were more likely to have nationalist attitudes; the tendency to be more nationalist & belligerent may, among other things, form the microfoundation of democratic peace in international relations

Possible Evolutionary Origins of Nationalism. Satoshi Kanazawa. Political Behavior, Aug 23 2021. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-021-09741-7

Abstract: Why do some individuals support nationalist policies while others don’t? The Savanna-IQ Interaction Hypothesis in evolutionary psychology suggests that more intelligent individuals may be more likely to acquire and espouse evolutionarily novel values whereas less intelligent individuals may be more likely to hold evolutionarily familiar values. Nationalism is evolutionarily familiar, so the Savanna-IQ Interaction Hypothesis suggests that less intelligent individuals may be more likely to be nationalist. The analyses of the General Social Survey (GSS) data in the US and the National Child Development Study (NCDS) data in the UK confirmed the prediction. Less intelligent Americans were more likely to have nationalist attitudes, and less intelligent British voters were more likely to support nationalist parties in five general elections over three decades. The tendency of less intelligent individuals to be more nationalist and belligerent may, among other things, form the microfoundation of democratic peace in international relations.


Changes in sexual behavior observed in the early months of the pandemic have continued, with small but significant decreases in many partnered sexual behaviors & a small increase in men's solitary sexual behaviors

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Sexual Behaviors: Findings from a National Survey in the United States. Neil Gleason et al. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, August 23 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2021.08.008

Abstract

Background: Studies from the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting lockdown and social distancing measures have shown that there have been decreases in sexual frequency and relationship satisfaction.

Aim. To evaluate the ongoing impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sexual behavior, relationship satisfaction, and intimate partner violence in the U.S. using a large national convenience sample.

Methods. 1,051 participants across the U.S. were recruited in October 2020 to complete a cross-sectional online survey.

Outcomes: Participants were asked to retrospectively report their sexual behavior frequency, relationship satisfaction, and intimate partner violence during the pandemic and prior to the pandemic

Results. There was a small but significant decrease in some retrospectively-reported partnered sexual activities, and men reported a small increase in masturbation and pornography use. There was no evidence for a change in relationship satisfaction or intimate partner violence, but both men and women reported a small decrease in sexual pleasure, and women reported a small decrease in sexual desire. The sexual behaviors with greatest reduction were casual sex, hookups, and number of partners, and the most diminished as aspect of sexual functioning was sexual enjoyment. Depression symptoms, relationship status, and perceived importance of social distancing emerged as predictors of these reductions. Less than half of individuals who engaged with casual sex partners before the start of the pandemic ceased this behavior completely after the start of the pandemic. Individuals waited on average 6-7 weeks before reengaging in casual sex.

Clinical translation: These results inform public health response to the effects of the pandemic and add to our understanding of how the pandemic has continued to impact sexual behavior.

Strengths and Limitations: This is the first known study to evaluate sexual behavior several months into the COVID-19 pandemic using a large national sample. However, the results of this study are limited by its convenience sampling method and cross-sectional design.

Conclusions: These results indicate that the changes in sexual behavior observed in the early months of the pandemic have continued, with small but significant decreases in many partnered sexual behaviors and a small increase in men's solitary sexual behaviors.

Keywords: COVID-19sexual behaviorsexual functioningsexual frequencyrelationship satisfactionsexual satisfactionintimate partner violence


Happiness has positive effects both on income generation and preferring more leisure time; the net effect on income generation is positive and significant

Effects of Happiness on Income and Income Inequality. Satya Paul. Journal of Happiness Studies, Aug 22 2021. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10902-021-00439-5

Abstract: This paper examines the effects of happiness on income and income inequality. We postulate that happiness impacts upon the income generating capacity of individuals directly by stimulating work efficiency, and indirectly by affecting their allocation of time for paid work. These direct and indirect effects of happiness on income are tested in a regression model and the implication of these effects for income distribution is explored using an inequality decomposition framework. An empirical exercise based on Australian HILDA panel survey data (2001–2014) reveals that happiness has a positive and significant effect on income generation and contributes to the reduction of inequality.


Androgynous individuals are less likely to suffer depression while undifferentiated individuals are more susceptible to depression; masculinity traits seem to be a robust protective factor for depression regardless of gender

Does gender role explain a high risk of depression? A meta-analytic review of 40 years of evidence. Jingyuan Lin et al. Journal of Affective Disorders, Volume 294, Nov 1 2021, Pages 261-278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.07.018

Highlights

• Androgynous individuals are less likely to suffer depression while undifferentiated individuals are more susceptible to depression.

• Masculinity traits seem to be a robust protective factor for depression regardless of gender. Of note, the dominance of masculinity has declined as life expectancy increases.

• The protective effect of femininity against depression starts to emerge with the gradual increase in educational attainment and income level from 1990 to 2019.

Abstract

Background: This meta-analytic review aimed to systematically evaluate associations of depression with multiple gender role dimensions (masculinity, femininity, androgyny, and undifferentiated traits) and to determine potential moderators (participant characteristics, study instruments and sociocultural factors) of the relationship.

Methods: Of 4481 initially identified records in three electronic databases, 58 studies published 1978 to 2021 were included for meta-analysis.

Results: (1) Association of depression and gender role is moderated by study year and human development indices. (2) Masculinity is a protective factor for depression, while this dominance has declined as life expectancy increases. (3) A negative, weak but significant association between depression and femininity is observed in women, and college students, which starts to emerge with the gradual increase in the national education and income index from 1990 to 2019. (4) Androgynous individuals reported the lowest level of depression as compared with other gender role orientations (masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated trait group). This disparity is becoming more extreme with life expectancy and per capita income index increases.

Limitations: English-language studies were only included in this review.

Conclusions: Androgyny might be the most ideal gender role protecting both women and men from depression.

Keywords: DepressionGender roleMasculinityFemininityAndrogynyHuman development index

Popular version: Masculinity may have a protective effect against the development of depression -- even for women (psypost.org)

Sunday, August 22, 2021

Physical pain, gender, & economic trends in 146 nations: Pain falls in a boom and rises in a downturn; pain is high when unemployment is high; increases in pain in recessions are borne predominantly by women

Physical pain, gender, and economic trends in 146 nations. Lucía Macchia, Andrew J. Oswald. Social Science & Medicine, August 21 2021, 114332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114332

Highlights

• The study is the first to study physical pain as a function of economic trends.

• It uses Gallup data from 146 countries.

• Pain falls in a boom and rises in a downturn.

• Pain is high when unemployment is high.

• Increases in pain in recessions are borne predominantly by women.

Abstract

Rationale: Physical pain is one of the most severe of human experiences. It is thus one of the most important to understand.

Objective: This paper reports the first cross-country study of the links between physical pain and the state of the economy. A key issue examined is how the level of pain in a society is influenced by the unemployment rate.

Methods: The study uses pooled cross-sectional Gallup data from 146 countries (total N > 1,350,000). It estimates fixed-effects regression equations that control for personal characteristics.

Results: More than a quarter of the world's citizens are in physical pain. Physical pain is lower in a boom and greater in an economic downturn. Estimated effect sizes are substantial. Remarkably, increases in pain are borne almost exclusively by women and found principally in rich nations. These findings have paradoxical aspects. The counter-cyclicality of physical pain is not what would be predicted by conventional economic analysis: during an expansion, people typically work harder and longer, and accidents and injuries increase. Nor are the study results due to unemployed citizens experiencing more pain (although they do). Instead, the study's findings are consistent with an important hypothesis proposed recently, using different kinds of evidence, by brain and behavioural-science researchers (e.g., Wiech and Tracey, 2009). The hypothesis is that economic worry can create physical pain.

Conclusions: This study provides the first cross-country evidence that the level of physical pain in a nation depends on the state of the economy. Pain is high when the unemployment rate is high. That is not because of greater pain among people who lose their jobs — it extends far beyond that into wider society. The increase in physical pain in a downturn is experienced disproportionately by women.

Keywords: Physical painUnemploymentState of the economyGender


We show general tracking accuracy in detecting a partner’s sexual rejection, but also overestimate the degree & occurrence of this rejection; the overestimation bias was associated with lower daily relationship & sexual satisfaction

Perceptual Accuracy for Sexual Rejection in Romantic Relationships. Kiersten Dobson, James Kim & Emily A. Impett. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Aug 19 2021. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10508-021-02126-1

Abstract: In the current research, we investigated perceptual accuracy in romantic partners’ detection of sexual rejection. In two daily diary studies of predominantly cisgender heterosexual couples, we examined patterns of accuracy and bias concerning both the degree of sexual disinterest (Study 1; N = 98 couples) and occurrence of sexual rejection (Study 2; N = 115 couples), as well as how these perceptions were associated with satisfaction. Using a multi-method approach to capture both continuous and categorical operationalizations of sexual rejection (Study 1: truth and bias; Study 2: quasi-signal detection), we found that people were both accurate and biased in their perceptions of partner rejection. Across studies, results showed that people demonstrated general tracking accuracy in detecting a partner’s sexual rejection, but they also overestimated the degree and occurrence of this rejection. Additionally, this overestimation bias was associated with lower daily relationship and sexual satisfaction. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of dyadic perceptions of sexual rejection in shaping daily relationship and sexual functioning.


There are about 2.5 million cooks and chefs in the USA; one in four reports experiencing physical violence in the workplace—roughly 632,500 victims; bullying and harassment are romanticized in food media

The Normalization of Violence in Commercial Kitchens Through Food Media. Ellen T. Meiser, Penn Pantumsinchai. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, April 16, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211005138

Abstract: The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that there are 2.53 million cooks and chefs in the United States. Of those, one in four reports experiencing physical violence in the workplace—roughly 632,500 victims. While shocking, this figure fails to account for the psychological and sexual violence that also plagues commercial kitchens. Workplace harassment and bullying is not limited to the United States and has been documented in Scottish, English, Scandinavian, French, Malaysian, Korean, and Australian kitchens. Why is violence so prevalent in kitchens, and how has it become a behavioral norm? Using data from 50 in-depth interviews with kitchen workers and analysis of food media, this article shows that while kitchen workplace violence can be attributed to typical causes, such as occupational stress, there is an overlooked source: the normalization of violence through food media. By exploring television shows, like “Hell’s Kitchen,” and chef memoirs, like Bourdain’s Kitchen Confidential, readers will see how bullying and harassment are romanticized in these mediums, glorified as a product of kitchen subculture, and consequently normalized in the kitchen.

Keywords: violence, culinary industry, harassment, workplace bullying, media, idioculture



Sex differences in language competence of 4-year-old children: Female advantages are mediated by phonological short-term memory

Sex differences in language competence of 4-year-old children: Female advantages are mediated by phonological short-term memory. Benjamin P. Lange, Eugen Zaretsky. Applied Psycholinguistics, August 16 2021. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/applied-psycholinguistics/article/abs/sex-differences-in-language-competence-of-4yearold-children-female-advantages-are-mediated-by-phonological-shortterm-memory/620C2871AB714CEB946F231AAB5CB508

Abstract: For some time now, psycholinguistic research has involved the study of sex differences in language development. Overall, girls seem to have an early advantage over boys, mainly in regard to vocabulary, which appears to decrease and, eventually, vanish with age. While there are numerous studies on sex differences in the acquisition of vocabulary as well as grammar, early sex differences in phonological short-term memory (PSTM) have been mostly neglected, or if research was conducted, it resulted in null findings, for the most part. In the present study, we examined sex differences in language competence (in a wide array of linguistic domains) of German children 4 years of age. Several tests were administered to assess articulation, vocabulary, grammar, speech comprehension, and, most importantly, PSTM (by means of the repetition of non-words and sentences). Girls performed better than boys in all domains, although some effect sizes were small. Most importantly, we found evidence for a female advantage in PSTM performance. Furthermore, mediation analyses revealed that the obtained sex differences in articulation, vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension were partially or fully mediated by (sex differences in) PSTM.


Life gets miserable with age, but those with higher life satisfaction & in better health tend to live longer, & , among survivors, individuals with higher life satisfaction are more likely to remain in the survey, masking the decline

The age profile of life satisfaction after age 65 in the U.S. Péter Hudomiet, Michael D. Hurd, Susann Rohwedder. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Volume 189, September 2021, Pages 431-442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2021.07.002

Highlights

• Older people express higher life satisfaction, the “Paradox of well-being.”

• But in longitudinal data life satisfaction declines with age after 65.

• Resolution of paradox: individuals with high life satisfaction stay in study longer.

• Population life satisfaction higher at older ages due to mortality & other selection.

• Life satisfaction of individuals declines due to health and widowing.

Abstract: Although income and wealth are frequently used as indicators of well-being, they are increasingly augmented with subjective measures such as life satisfaction to capture broader dimensions of the well-being of individuals. Based on large surveys of individuals, life satisfaction in cross-section often is found to increase with age beyond retirement into advanced old age. It may seem puzzling that average life satisfaction does not decline at older ages because older individuals are more likely to experience chronic or acute health conditions, or the loss of a spouse. Accordingly, this empirical pattern has been called the “paradox of well-being.” We examine the age profile of life satisfaction of the U.S. population age 65 or older in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), and find that in cross-section it increases between age 65 and 71 and is flat thereafter; but based on the longitudinal dimension of the HRS, life satisfaction significantly declines with age and the rate of decline accelerates with age. We reconcile the cross-section and longitudinal measurements by showing that both differential mortality and differential non-response bias the cross-sectional age profile upward: individuals with higher life satisfaction and in better health tend to live longer, and, among survivors, individuals with higher life satisfaction are more likely to remain in the survey, masking the decline in life satisfaction experienced by individuals as they age. We conclude that the optimistic view about increasing life satisfaction at older ages based on cross-sectional data is not warranted.

Keywords: Subjective well-beingDifferential mortalityDifferential non-responseHealthWidowing



Rejection in a date sends waves in brain areas that overlap with the physical pain matrix

Neural correlates of acceptance and rejection in online speed dating: An electroencephalography study. Xukai Zhang, M. J. W. van der Molen, Susannah C. S. A. Otieno, Zongling He, Paavo H. T. Leppänen & Hong Li. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, Aug 20 2021. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13415-021-00939-0

Abstract: Pursuing dating relationships is important for many people’s well-being, because it helps them fulfill the need for stable social relationships. However, the neural underpinnings of decision-making processes during the pursuit of dating interactions are unclear. In the present study, we used a novel online speed dating paradigm where participants (undergraduate students, N = 25, aged 18–25 years, 52% female) received direct information about acceptance or rejection of their various speed dates. We recorded EEG measurements during speed dating feedback anticipation and feedback processing stages to examine the stimulus preceding negativity (SPN) and feedback-related brain activity (Reward Positivity, RewP, and theta oscillatory power). The results indicated that the SPN was larger when participants anticipated interest versus disinterest from their speed dates. A larger RewP was observed when participants received interest from their speed dates. Theta power was increased when participants received rejection from their speed dates. This theta response could be source-localized to brain areas that overlap with the physical pain matrix (anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the supplementary motor area). This study demonstrates that decision-making processes—as evident in a speed date experiment—are characterized by distinct neurophysiological responses during anticipating an evaluation and processing thereof. Our results corroborate the involvement of the SPN in reward anticipation, RewP in reward processing and mid-frontal theta power in processing of negative social-evaluative feedback. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the neurocognitive mechanisms implicated in decision-making processes when pursuing dating relationships.


Low autonomic arousal (low resting heart rate) is a risk factor for reoffending

Oskarsson S, Kuja-Halkola R, Latvala A, Andersson A, Garcia-Argibay M, Bertoldi BM, et al. (2021) Low autonomic arousal as a risk factor for reoffending: A population-based study. PLoS ONE 16(8): e0256250. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256250


Abstract

Background  Low resting heart rate (RHR) and low systolic blood pressure (SBP) are associated with criminal behavior. However, knowledge is lacking about their predictive value for reoffending.

Aim  We aimed to examine associations of RHR and SBP with reoffending in a large population-based sample.

Methods  We conducted a cohort study of all convicted male conscripts born in Sweden 1958–1990 (N = 407,533). We obtained data by linking Swedish population-based registers. Predictor variables were RHR and SBP, measured at conscription which was mandatory until 2010 for men at age 18. The outcome variable was reoffending, defined as criminal convictions (any crime, violent crime and non-violent crime), obtained from the National Crime Register. We used survival analyses to test for associations of RHR and SBP with reoffending, adjusting for pertinent covariates such as socioeconomic status, height, weight and physical energy capacity.

Results  In fully adjusted Cox regression models, men with lower RHR (≤60 bpm) had higher risk of reoffending (any crime: HR = 1.17, 95% CI: 1.14, 1.19, violent crime: HR = 1.23, 95% CI: 1.17, 1.29, non-violent crime: HR = 1.16, 95% CI: 1.14, 1.19), compared to men with higher RHR (≥ 82 bpm). Men with lower SBP (≤80 mmHg) had higher risk of reoffending (any crime: HR = 1.19, 95% CI: 1.17, 1.21, violent crime: HR = 1.16, 95% CI: 1.12, 1.20, non-violent crime: HR = 1.20, 95% CI: 1.18, 1.22), compared to men with higher SBP (≥138 mmHg).

Conclusions  Low autonomic arousal is associated with increased risk of reoffending. RHR and SBP should be investigated further as potential predictors for reoffending as they each may have predictive value in risk assessment protocols.

Discussion

In a sample of 407,533 convicted male conscripts in Sweden born between 1958 and 1990, we found that lower RHR and lower SBP at age 18 were associated with an increased risk of reoffending. These results replicate findings from previous work conducted on risk factors for criminal behavior [59], and extend these findings in important ways. Specifically, our findings replicate prior work demonstrating that individual differences in autonomic arousal, measured as RHR and SBP, are associated with criminal behavior [59]. However, earlier work has not considered the prior criminal histories of study participants. Our study focused on men with a history of criminal convictions and showed that these indicators of autonomic arousal predicted subsequent reoffending. This finding is important because it provides evidence that variations in autonomic arousal are associated not only with the likelihood of offending [59], but also with the persistence and repetitiveness of offending.

Our findings suggest that low RHR and low SBP should be further investigated and considered as potential predictors to be included in risk assessment protocols. All estimates in the present study remained statistically significant, with some in fact strengthened, after adjusting for pertinent covariates, indicating that RHR and SBP contribute uniquely to prediction of reoffending. Individuals with low RHR who engage in criminal behavior may not benefit from traditional treatment programs to the extent they are, according to theoretical accounts based on low fear [4] and stimulation-seeking propensities [416], less able to learn from their experiences. In particular, low fear of punishment may reduce the effectiveness of conditioning. As evidence for this, youth with disruptive behavior disorders have been found to profit less from behavioral treatment if they also exhibit low RHR [30]. From this perspective, individuals who engage in criminal behavior who also have low RHR may require tailored interventions targeting their under-aroused autonomic nervous system to prevent them from reoffending. Low RHR and low SBP may have limited importance in themselves as predictors of reoffending, but together with more established predictors (e.g., history of criminal behavior, employment, psychiatric disorder) [2], they could add importantly to the identification of individuals at high risk for reoffending who could be prioritized for intervention programs. We encourage future research aimed at incorporating autonomic arousal measures into models for predicting reoffending.

It is well-known that criminal behavior runs in families [23], and that measures of autonomic arousal are heritable [31]. In addition, findings from recent research provide evidence that the association between low RHR and criminal behavior is substantially attributable to genetic influences [9]. This evidence suggests that autonomic arousal as indexed by low RHR and SBP levels may be one of the biological factors underlying transmission of criminal behavior from one generation to the next [8]. Taken together, our findings provide further impetus for considering autonomic arousal variations in etiologic models of reoffending.

The results from the present study are novel, as only one previous small-scale study has tested for an association between low RHR and reoffending [10]. In contrast to our results, this study did not find an association between low RHR and reoffending, potentially due to lack of statistical power. However, this study did find that weak heart rate reactivity and an elevated heart rate variability within a stressor task predicted a higher likelihood of reoffending during follow up. The current study is therefore the first to demonstrate an increased risk of reoffending in a large-scale population-based sample of men with prior conviction histories. Our finding of an increased risk for reoffending among previously convicted men with low SBP is also novel, as no study has examined this association before. Future research should replicate these findings in different settings and populations.

The findings of the present study should be considered in the light of some limitations. RHR and SBP were measured concurrently using an arm-cuff monitor, after subjects had rested for 5 to 10 minutes [21]. This procedure differs from the conventional laboratory method of measuring cardiac activity from skin-surface electrodes attached to the limbs or torso, which may yield cleaner data [32]. However, use of an arm-cuff is the most prevalent method for obtaining these measures clinically, and is standard practice in clinical settings in Sweden [21]. Further, no other information pertaining to the collection of RHR and SBP data was available in the Swedish Military Conscription Register. Therefore, factors such as time of recording and room temperature that may influence cardiovascular measurements could not be controlled for. It also warrants mention that valid RHR data were missing for 43% of the overall registry sample. However, sensitivity analysis including only men with valid RHR and SBP data yielded comparable estimates. This is in line with a prior study examining low RHR in relation to criminal behavior, which showed that excluding the portion of the sample who lacked RHR data did not affect the observed associations [5].

A further limitation is that our study included only men, so it remains to be seen whether our findings generalize to women. Although previous research has shown that low autonomic arousal is associated with criminal behavior for both men and women [7], we cannot draw the same conclusion with respect to reoffending. It is also important to bear in mind that our study focused on men with official convictions only, who may not be representative of all men who have engaged in criminal acts within Sweden.

In conclusion, our findings demonstrate evidence for associations for two distinct indices of autonomic arousal, RHR and SBP, with risk of reoffending, even after adjusting for possible extraneous confounds. These findings indicate that low RHR and low SBP should be further examined as predictors of reoffending, as they may help to improve identification of individuals at risk for repeated criminal justice involvement. Further evidence for the predictive value of autonomic arousal measures would support their inclusion in risk assessment protocols, as a basis for targeting case management and intervention efforts.

Saturday, August 21, 2021

Today’s young adults are ascribed a mixed stereotype content, subject to harsher social judgments than both older age groups & recollections of former generations at the same age, & victim of discriminatory behaviors

Francioli, S. P., & North, M. S. (2021). Youngism: The content, causes, and consequences of prejudices toward younger adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. Aug 2021. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001064

Abstract: Research on ageism has focused largely on perceptions of and biases targeting older adults, implicitly assuming that age-based stigma increases throughout the life span and that young adults benefit from favorable views relative to their older counterparts. In a series of eight studies (N = 2,323), we provide evidence to the contrary. We theorize that, in sharp contrast with ageism toward older adults, which revolves around fear and discomfort with the target’s later life stage, youngism (i.e., ageism toward young adults) is primarily generationally focused, aiming at contemporaneous generations of young adults rather than young adults in general. Consistent with this theorizing, we find that today’s young adults are ascribed a mixed stereotype content (Study 1a–1c), subject to harsher social judgments than both older age groups (Study 2) and recollections of former generations at the same age (Study 3a and 3b), and victim of discriminatory behaviors (Study 4 and 5). By comprehensively documenting cognitive, emotional, and behavioral evidence of youngism, the present work challenges the idea that ageism only reflects a plight of later-life aging. Instead, we show not only that ageism can target other age groups but also that the nature and content of ageism vary across the life span.



Is Voting Transformative? Found no impact on voters' political knowledge, attitudes, or behaviors

Is Voting Transformative? Expanding and Meta-Analyzing the Evidence. John B. Holbein, Marcos A. Rangel, Raeal Moore & Michelle Croft. Political Behavior, Aug 20 2021. https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-021-09746-2

Abstract: Voting is the foundational act of democracy. While thousands of studies have treated voting as a dependent variable, comparatively little research has studied voting as an independent variable. Here we flip the causal arrow and explore the effect of exogenous voting shocks on citizens’ broader attitudes and behaviors. To do so, we first use two waves from a uniquely large survey of young people in the United States, pairing this with a regression discontinuity design. We augment these results with a new meta-analysis of all causally-identified studies exploring whether voting is transformative. We find that—despite voting at much higher rates—individuals induced to vote, regardless of the mode used to mobilize, are (precisely) no different from all-else-equal individuals that are not. Our results illuminate the (non)consequences of a vitally important—and widely studied—political behavior and speak to the broader importance of voting as an object of study.


Sexual arousal evokes sexual disinhibition (increased self-reported likelihood to engage in uncommon, risky, and coercive sexual activities); among disinhibition indicators: "Can you imagine having sex with a 50-year-old woman/man?"

Sexual Disinhibition Under Sexual Arousal: Evidence for Domain Specificity in Men and Women. Roland Imhoff & Alexander F. Schmidt. Archives of Sexual Behavior volume 43, pages1123–1136, Aug 5 2021. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-014-0329-8

Abstract: Men have been shown to estimate their likelihood of engaging in sexually coercive behaviors and also uncommon and unprotected sexual behaviors as higher when they are in an acute state of sexual arousal. The present research sought to test (1) whether sexual arousal effects could be replicated under more controlled laboratory settings, (2) whether women showed the same pattern of results, and (3) whether this effect was specific to sexual disinhibition or would generalize to non-sexual disinhibited behavior. In two experimental studies, male and female participants (Study 1: N = 84; Study 2: N = 86) were either sexually aroused by acoustically presented erotic narratives or listened to sexually non-arousing neutral narratives. Afterwards, they self-estimated their likelihood of engaging in a variety of behaviors that could be characterized as sexual or non-sexual disinhibited behavior. Results replicated the previously established effect of sexual disinhibition under sexual arousal for men and provided the first evidence for a similar effect in women. No arousal effects were observed for non-sexual behavior, rendering alternative explanations based on mere indifferent responding unlikely. The discussion focused on a plausible explanation for this effect.


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It is important to note here that we propose the term disinhibition as a characterization of the commonality of the three domains: Engaging in uncommon, morally questionable, and unsafe sexual behavior. Importantly, disinhibition here refers to the outcome of reporting greater likelihood of engaging in this behavior (i.e., an outcome that is less constrained by social norms and expectations of what might constitute socially desirable responses), not to the process. In terms of underlying processes, such an outcome may results from either reduced inhibitory processes or stronger approach motivation (see Toates, 2009; for a dual control model of inhibition and excitation, see also Bancroft & Janssen, 2000). Although Ariely and Loewenstein seemed to favor the latter explanation of an increase in the appetitive sexual system, we argue that alternative explanations are conceivable.


Friday, August 20, 2021

What narrative strategies durably reduce prejudice? Omitting analogic perspective-taking and vicarious perspective-giving does not diminish effects; conversations employing only perspective-getting narratives work

Kalla, Joshua, and David Broockman. 2020. “Which Narrative Strategies Durably Reduce Prejudice? Evidence from Field and Survey Experiments Supporting the Efficacy of Perspective-getting.” OSF Preprints. December 28. doi:10.31219/osf.io/z2awt

Abstract: Exclusionary attitudes contribute to social and political challenges worldwide. Previous field experiments have found that interpersonal conversations which employ multiple theoretically-informed narrative strategies can durably reduce exclusionary attitudes. However, studies of these interventions have always assigned three narrative strategies together in a compound treatment: narratives which promote analogic perspective-taking, vicarious perspective-giving, and perspective-getting. This leaves open important theoretical and empirical questions about to what extent each is effective. We present results from two field experiments, a difference-in-differences analysis, and a survey experiment that individually manipulate their presence. Across the field experiments, we find that omitting analogic perspective-taking and vicarious perspective-giving does not diminish effects; conversations employing only perspective-getting narratives durably reduce exclusionary attitudes. We also present results from within-subject analyses and survey experiments that show that perspective-getting consistently reduces exclusionary attitudes and activates multiple mechanisms, whereas the other approaches have less reliable effects. These results support a focus on facilitating perspective-getting in interpersonal conversations that aim to durably reduce exclusionary attitudes.


Psychopathy & personality disorder were not found to be associated with membership in the mafia for either gender; seems more of a mentality characterized by beliefs & practices determined by a deviant culture rather than psychopathology

Women and men of mafia between traditional cultural contexts and new social roles. Felice Carabellese, Alan R. Felthous, Harry G. Kennedy, Domenico Montalbò, Donatell La Tegola, Anna Coluccia, Fabio Ferretti, Fulvio Carabellese, Roberto Catanesi. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, August 19 2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2533

Abstract: The Italian mafia organizations represent a subculture with values, beliefs, and goals that are antithetical to and undermining of the predominant society. The conduct of individual members includes such extreme violence for material gain, it may at least superficially suggest a severe personality disorder. Since the first edition of the DSM and into the 21st century, various terms have been used, sometimes interchangeably, but over time inconsistently, to designate the mentality and practices of mafia members. Only recently has the psychology of mafia members become a focus of serious scientific study. For the first time, investigators for the present study applied instruments, including the PCL-R, to examine for character psychopathology and specifically degrees of psychopathy in male and female mafia members, 20 female and 21 male members. Results showed some gender difference with the women having a higher score on Factor 1, in contrast to men who showed a lower score. Psychopathy and personality disorder were not found to be associated with membership in the mafia for either gender. Some psychopathic traits and gender differences warrant further research. Meanwhile these findings are consistent with a mentality characterized by beliefs and practices determined by a deviant culture rather than psychopathology.



Does testosterone affect men’s willingness to compete, confidence, and risk-taking—dimensions of economic behavior that are theoretically linked to the Challenge Hypothesis? Effects are small and inconsistent

Nave, Gideon, Amos Nadler, Colin Camerer, and Matthias Wibral. 2021. “Does Testosterone Administration Increase Competitiveness, Confidence and Financial Risk-taking in Men?.” PsyArXiv. August 20. doi:10.31234/osf.io/62af7

Abstract: The sex steroid hormone testosterone regulates male-typical behaviors such as aggression and displays of dominance in non-human animals. According to the Challenge Hypothesis, these effects arise from context-sensitive testosterone increases that facilitate inter-male competitions over resources, status, and mates. A growing literature documents similar effects of testosterone on economic behaviors related to competition and risk-taking in humans, though findings to date have been mixed. Here, we report two randomized double-blind placebo-controlled testosterone administration experiments, whose combined sample (N = 334) is substantially larger than any previous investigation of the topic (N1 = 91, N2 = 243). The studies were designed independently by research groups in Europe and the US, and both investigated testosterone’s effects on men’s willingness to compete, confidence, and risk-taking—dimensions of economic behavior that are theoretically linked to the Challenge Hypothesis, show robust sex differences, and predict important real-life outcomes such as career choice. We find no evidence for effects of testosterone on any of the behavioral tasks studied across the two experiments, with effect point estimates that are small and inconsistent. The studies had 90% statistical power to detect effects that are larger than d = 0.68 and d = 0.42 respectively, and equivalence tests confidently reject effects that are greater than these magnitudes. Our findings cast doubt on the proposition that testosterone is a meaningful causal driver of the stereotypically “masculine” dimensions of economic behavior studied, and suggest that even if true effects existed, detecting them experimentally would be challenging.

Does testosterone affect men’s willingness to compete, confidence, and risk-taking—dimensions of economic behavior that are theoretically linked to the Challenge Hypothesis? Small and inconsistent effects


Following the 2020 presidential race, many pundits and academics were quick to claim that the pandemic might have altered the outcome of the election; these authors disagree

Did exposure to COVID-19 affect vote choice in the 2020 presidential election? Marco Mendoza Aviña, Semra Sevi. Research & Politics, August 18, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/20531680211041505

Abstract: An important body of literature shows that citizens evaluate elected officials based on their past performance. In the aftermath of the 2020 presidential election, the conventional wisdom in both media and academic discourse was that Donald Trump would have been a two-term president absent an unprecedented, global force majeure. In this research note, we address a simple question: did exposure to COVID-19 impact vote choice in the 2020 presidential election? Using data from the Cooperative Election Study, we find that Trump’s vote share decreased because of COVID-19. However, there is no evidence suggesting that Joe Biden loses the election when no voter reports exposure to coronavirus cases and deaths. These negligible effects are found at both the national and state levels, and are robust to an exhaustive set of confounders across model specifications.

Keywords: 2020 US presidential election, COVID-19, Biden, Trump, vote choice

Following the 2020 presidential race, many pundits and academics were quick to claim that the pandemic might have altered the outcome of the election. While limited to a single instance of COVID-19’s electoral impact (i.e. self-reported exposure to the virus), our findings do not support the claim that the pandemic cost Trump his re-election. There is no doubt that COVID-19 negatively affected Trump’s electoral performance; yet our counterfactual analysis shows that the presidential two-party vote is virtually unchanged when no voter contracts the disease.8 The null finding for those who were personally diagnosed is consistent with previous analyses having found that support for Trump increased in some of the areas that were hardest hit by COVID-19 (McMinn and Stein, 2020). Our results are also consistent with the fact that Trump’s approval ratings were remarkably stable throughout his presidency (FiveThirtyEight, 2021). In early 2020, fewer than 45% of American adults approved of Trump’s job as president. This percentage fluctuated somewhat over the year but remained in the mid-forties until January 2021. This suggests, as our results do, that the extraordinary circumstances that arose during that election year did little to change the electorate’s crystalized – and overall unfavorable – views of the 45th president.