Higher intelligence is robustly related to greater tolerance of disliked groups

Lasker, Jordan, and Jon McNaughtan. 2022. “Assessing the Robustness of the Relationship Between Tolerance and Intelligence.” PsyArXiv. April 14. doi:10.31234/osf.io/dpx74

Abstract

Introduction: Individual differences in intelligence have been repeatedly found to be positively related to tolerance towards, and support for, the rights of groups different from one’s own. These findings hold true even when considering groups individuals dislike. This relationship has been explained in terms of both direct effects – whereby more intelligent people form more cognitive and less visceral opinions about other groups – and indirect ones, where the relationship represents the effects of phenomena like education or urban living, that have also been argued to give rise to higher intelligence and greater tolerance for others.

Methods: To assess the robustness of this association to a plethora of common alternative explanations, we conducted a Specification Curve Analysis with the data from the U.S.-based General Social Survey (Nspecification max >15000). This method fits all possible configurations of a model that are possible with a set of variables, making it uniquely well-suited for robustness testing. 

Results: We found that the relationship was almost wholly robust to many alternative explanations, and in those cases where the relationship became null, it was likely the result of small sample sizes for a given specification.

Conclusion: Intelligence and tolerance are strongly and consistently related.

Fake Independents, who claimed independence but who voted straight ticket, in most cases preferred Democrats, acted very much like Liberals in stated values and concerns, had aversion to being bound to a party

This party stinks: Self-definitions and justifications of the politically unaffiliated. Daniel M. Rempala & Bradley M. Okdie. Current Psychology, Apr 13 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12144-022-03097-9

Abstract: Politically unaffiliated, or “independent,” voters are accorded great importance in electoral contexts because of their presumed persuadability. However, this category remains poorly defined. Using online survey data collected after the 2018 U.S. midterm elections (Study 1) and 2020 U.S. general election (Study 2), we separate political independents into distinct subcategories based on language used to describe their political beliefs and behavior, and analyze their motivations using open-ended self-justifications, the Moral Foundations Questionnaire, and political engagement measures. We identified three distinct groups of independents. Pure Independents self-identified as “independent” and lingered between the liberal and conservative poles on virtually all political engagement and moral foundations measures. Default Independents, unaffiliated participants who did not self-identify as “independent” and were low on moral foundations and political engagement measures. Fake Independents, unaffiliated participants who voted straight-ticket, provided results similar to Liberals and viewed the Democratic Party as the only voting option available. These data show the diversity of those who claim political independence and offer insights into conceptualizing political independence.

Germany: Women rate the reputation of housewives considerably worse than men do

Das Ansehen von Hausfrauen in Deutschland – Eine quantitativ-empirische Analyse differenzieller Wahrnehmungen / The Prestige of Housewives in Germany—A Quantitative–Empirical Analysis of Differential Perceptions. Katrin Stache, Christian Ebner & Daniela Rohrbach-Schmidt. KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, Apr 12 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11577-022-00819-6

Abstract: The employment rate of women has increased markedly over the past decades, both internationally and in Germany, whereas the classic male breadwinner model is eroding. Against this background, using current survey data, the aim of this study is to examine the social prestige of the shrinking group of housewives whose main activity is domestic and family work. The analyses address, on the one hand, the question of how high their reputation is generally rated by the population in Germany and, on the other hand, whether the perceptions differ systematically by raters’ sociodemographic characteristics. The empirical findings show that the reputation of housewives in Germany is generally rated higher than that of the unemployed and of those in helper jobs but lower than for those in professional jobs at the skilled level. Moreover, the assessments of housewives’ prestige vary significantly according to the social group (birth cohort, level of education, labor force participation, gender) to which the respondents belong. Further analyses of interaction effects also reveal a differentiated interaction of the gender variable with the other structural group characteristics. The paper concludes with a detailed discussion of the results and an outlook on future research.

We found that change in self-reported sexual orientation was not reflected in genital arousal, providing tentative support for the notion that self-reports may overestimate change in sexual orientation

Stability and Change in Sexual Orientation and Genital Arousal over Time. Dragos C. Gruia, Luke Holmes, Jaime Raines, Erlend Slettevold, Tuesday M. Watts-Overall & Gerulf Rieger. The Journal of Sex Research, Apr 12 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2022.2060927

Abstract: Longitudinal work suggests that sexual orientation can change over time in men and women. These studies, however, may be susceptible to the bias of self-report. The current study therefore examined self-reported sexual orientation in addition to an objective correlate: genital arousal to erotic videos showing males or females. For 52 men (19 heterosexual, 19 bisexual, 14 homosexual) and 67 women (31 heterosexual, 18 bisexual, 18 homosexual), these measures were taken twice, with approximately 1 year between sessions. For self-reported sexual orientation, women reported lower relative stability (weaker correlation) than men over time, even though women did not change more overall (no stronger mean difference) than men between sessions. Bisexual individuals reported lower relative stability and more mean change than heterosexual and homosexual individuals. For genital arousal, across all groups, response patterns were correlated over time to a similar extent and showed little difference between sessions. Moreover, change in self-reported sexual orientation did not correspond with the change in genital arousal, regardless of sex. Perhaps self-reports overestimate changes in sexual orientation, since these changes were not reflected in physiological sexual response.

Discussion

The present study examined: (a) the correlation of self-reported sexual orientation and arousal over time, (b) the mean change in orientation and arousal over time, and (c) the link between change in self-reported sexual orientation and change in sexual arousal. Before addressing any effects of time, it is worth examining the results by session. In general, patterns of sexual arousal in the present study were in agreement with those previously reported (Raines et al., 2021; Rosenthal et al., 2011). That is, heterosexual and homosexual men showed a strong preference for their preferred sex, while bisexual men, as a group, showed arousal to both sexes. Across sexual orientations, women showed arousal both to the same sex and other sex; however, homosexual women showed a slight tendency in arousal toward the same sex. One unexpected result was found in Session 1, where bisexual women showed somewhat less bisexual arousal than heterosexual women, if not homosexual women. It is unclear why this pattern occurred, and it was no longer the case in Session 2 (Figure 3).

With respect to relative stability (correlation) of self-reported sexual orientation over time, our results were similar to those found in a previous longitudinal study (Savin-Williams et al., 2012): (1) sexual orientation was relatively stable, overall, as suggested by the correspondence between sessions, (2) women, in general, showed lower relative stability than men, and (3) bisexuals, irrespective of sex, reported lower relative stability than other sexual orientations. For sexual arousal we also found overall relative stability, but it was weaker than for sexual orientation. Moreover, a sex difference in relative stability was only apparent in one of the two measures of arousal, and no significant differences in relative stability were found between bisexuals and monosexuals.

With respect to change (mean difference), for self-reported sexual orientation, our results were somewhat in agreement with previous work, but not entirely so (Mock & Eibach, 2012; Ott et al., 2011; Savin-Williams et al., 2012): (1) even though we did not find directional change over time, on average, there was non-directional change in participants’ sexual orientations, (2) even though women did not exhibit more non-directional change than men, the difference was in the predicted direction, and (3) bisexual individuals changed non-directionally more than other sexual orientations. Regarding mean change in sexual arousal, our results only partially mirrored findings for sexual orientation: (1) non-directional mean change in sexual arousal occurred, on average, but (2) women did not change more than men, and (3) bisexual individuals did not change more than monosexuals. In sum, 5 out of 6 of our predictions related to relative stability and to change were confirmed for self-reported sexual orientation, whereas only 2 out of 6 were fully confirmed across measures of genital arousal.

Taken together, the current data were able to largely replicate previous findings with respect to self-reported sexual orientation, but this was not reflected in sexual arousal. There are several ways in which we can interpret the lack of change in arousal: One interpretation is that the assessment of physiological sexual arousal is subject to more measurement error than self-reports, which could weaken any true patterns in arousal (i.e., correlation, mean change). An alternative interpretation is that longitudinal patterns observed in self-reports provide an over-estimation of the actual change in self-reported sexual orientation. This is not to say that change in sexual orientation does not exist, but rather that change may be rarer than suggested by self-report. Finally, it may be that change in self-reported sexual orientation truly happens subjectively but is not reflected by any corresponding change in physiological responses. Limited support for this assumption comes from one of our null findings, which indicated that change in self-reported sexual orientation was unrelated to change in sexual arousal.

Other limitations of this work need to be considered. It may be that with our sample, the proportion of individuals who exhibited a change in sexual arousal (or orientation) is simply too small to detect any reliable patterns. For instance, we can see in Figures 3a and 3b that bisexual men responded more to their less-arousing sex at the second visit, even though this difference between sessions was not statistically significant. Our lab was forced to close during the COVID-19 pandemic, which meant we were unable to bring back as many participants as originally planned. Despite this limitation, we believe the current findings are informative and may be used as a basis for future longitudinal studies of sexual arousal, which could employ larger participant cohorts.

In addition, due to the intrusive nature of the procedure, which is unavoidable for research on genital arousal, our study may have suffered from self-selection bias, and we simply do not know how patterns would look in those who do not participate. Furthermore, our study does not inform how patterns may change over longer periods, over and above 1 year, and future research could investigate this.

Another worthwhile avenue for future research may be to include pupillary responses to sexually explicit stimuli as an alternative measure of sexual arousal (Attard-Johnson et al., 2021). Even though previous work suggests that genital arousal and pupil dilation tend to show comparable findings (Rieger et al., 2015), the latter produces more noise and smaller effects, on average, and therefore require more participants. Still, including both genital arousal and pupil dilation would be ideal in future longitudinal studies of sexual arousal.

Research could also examine relative stability and change in both self-reported sexual orientation and sexual arousal during specific developmental periods (e.g., before, during, and after puberty), if this were ethically justifiable. Further, one may examine the precise reasons why some individuals exhibit change in their self-reported sexual orientation or sexual arousal. For instance, fear of rejection, discrimination, and cultural norms are a few of the factors that might influence change in self-reported sexual orientation, while exposure to new sexual experiences might contribute to changes in sexual arousal.

Conclusion

In this study, we followed up men and women of varying sexual orientations over time, examining their self-reported sexual orientation and objectively assessing their genital arousal to sexually explicit stimuli. We found that, on average, change in self-reported sexual orientation was more likely to be reported than change in genital arousal in both men and women, and that among all sexual orientations, bisexual individuals were the most likely to report any change. Furthermore, we found that change in self-reported sexual orientation was not reflected in genital arousal, providing tentative support for the notion that self-reports may overestimate change in sexual orientation.

Pakistan’s per capita GDP would have been an average of about $718 per year higher had the country not undertaken the effort to produce a nuclear weapon = per capita GDP being 27.8 percent lower over the 25-year weapons-development period

The Economic Cost of a Nuclear Weapon: A Synthetic Control Approach. Anthony Mayberry. SSRN Apr 6 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4065001

Abstract: This study estimates the economic effects of nuclear weapons development efforts in Pakistan using synthetic control group methods. Pakistan started its nuclear weapons program in 1972 and conducted its first test in 1998. This paper focuses on the growth impacts during the 1973 to 1997 period, before Pakistan established itself as a nuclear power. I create a synthetic control group for Pakistan using Per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from the 1950 to 1972. The impact of the nuclear weapons development program is measured as a treatment dummy for the years 1973-1997 in a Difference-in-Difference model. I find that Pakistan’s per capita GDP would have been an average of about $718 per year higher had the country not undertaken the effort to produce a nuclear weapon. This equates to per capita GDP being 27.8 percent lower on average over the 25-year weapons-development period. Results are robust to several alternative specifications, including country exclusion, sparse synthetic controls, non-outcome characteristics as predictors of GDP, and in-space placebo experiments of differing specifications.

Keywords: Sanctions, Nuclear Weapons, Synthetic Control, Economic Growth

JEL Classification: F5, O4, F51

Too hunky to help? Boys in the socially self-confident profile had significantly higher mean levels of prosocial behavior beliefs toward other boys compared to boys in the socially precarious profile

Too hunky to help: A person-centered approach to masculinity and prosocial behavior beliefs among adolescent boys. Matthew G. Nielson, Diana L. Jenkins, Ashley M. Fraser. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, April 3, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075221084697

Abstract: Boys’ beliefs about prosocial behavior toward other boys may be negatively affected by masculine norm adherence, and there is evidence that early adolescence is a time when boys feel heightened levels of pressure from multiple sources (e.g., friends, family, and self) to adhere to masculine norms like emotional restriction (e.g., appearing stoic and uncaring). However, the relation between boys’ masculinity and their prosocial behavior beliefs is likely further affected by boys’ social competency. Generally, boys’ social competency is positively associated with prosocial behavior, but this is not the case for “tough” boys (boys who adhere to many traditionally masculine norms). We expected that analyzing the relation between early adolescent boys’ pressure to adhere to masculine norms and boys’ unique social profiles (created using adherence to masculine norms and aspects of social competency) would further illuminate boys’ patterns of prosocial behavior beliefs toward other boys. A latent profile analysis estimated profiles of masculinity and social competence among 260 early adolescent boys (59% White, Mage = 11.45 years old, Rangeage = 10–12) in the southwestern U.S. Three profiles emerged which we labeled socially precarious (50%), socially self-confident (41%), and socially avoidant (9%). R3Step and BCH procedures indicated that higher levels of felt pressure from all three sources resulted in a significantly higher likelihood of being in the socially precarious profile compared to the socially self-confident profile and that boys in the socially self-confident profile had significantly higher mean levels of prosocial behavior beliefs toward other boys (M = 3.22) compared to boys in the socially precarious profile (M = 3.01). Overall, this study encourages the socialization of social competency while simultaneously discouraging the perpetuation of certain masculine norms among adolescent boys.

Keywords: Early adolescence, gender identity, latent profile analysis, parents, peers, prosocial

Letters To A Spanish Youngster CCLXV

 Letters To A Spanish Youngster CCLXV

[...]

Your Honor the blessing that the gods gave to us His admirers,/Su Señoría la bendición que los dioses nos han enviado a Sus admiradores,

I will keep transcribing ibn Gabirol's poems*, my dear lord and absolute governor./Continúo transcribiendo poemas de ibn Gabirol, mi querido señor y gobernador absoluto.

These are poems to be sent to those who do not care for us despite their saying so, or for those who betray love or friendship:/Estos son poemas para enviar a aquellos a los que no importamos aunque digan que sí lo hacen, o para aquellos que traicionan el amor o la amistad:

[On his love of Yecutiel/Acerca de su amor por Yecutiel]

                                                       [El día que mi alma fue enviada

                                                        a deambular en medio de los hombes,

                                                        no encontró salvo en ti ningún sosiego.]

[Yecutiel's power and generosity/Poder y generosidad de Yecutiel]

                                                       [Con su luz, una estrella      que pisó mis umbrales

                                                        oscureció los astros de mi alba.

                                                        pasó como un relámpago en un sueño

                                                        asiendo el corazón [...]

                                                        Delicia de mi vista      y de todos los ojos,

                                                        panal de nuestra lengua,      de nuestro olfato mirra,

                                                        [...]

                                                        Te alaba el universo,

                                                        que lleno está de júbilo; y tú eres

                                                        además la escarcela de mi plata.]

[Begging pardon/Pide disculpas]

                                                      [¿No es la magnitud de mi dolencia

                                                       como la de mi angustia?

                                                       Por su ardor se me han ido      la fuerza y el vigor.

                                                       Al llamarme tu carta,      tan llena de dulzura,

                                                       mi desesperación se ha sosegado.

                                                       Para contar mis males no te escribo,

                                                       sino como expiación de mi pecado

                                                       de no ir en tu búsqueda.

                                                       Voy a ir a tu encuentro      por encima de todo

                                                       pues sé que cuando vea tu figura

                                                       entonces sanaré,      hurtándose mi daño.]

[On a friend's hardness of heart/Acerca de la dureza de corazón de un amigo]

                                                      [De tal suerte me tiene en su infortunio

                                                       un hado traicionero cautivado

                                                       que mudose mi hermano      de mi como de un traje.

                                                       Si ayer me dominaba      el ansia de mi amigo,

                                                       ¿cómo hoy su lejanía      me tiene dominado?

                                                       Me puso como sello de su brazo

                                                       y como ceñidor      me ató en su vestidura;

                                                       comprome con inmensa querencia y con deseo,

                                                       y luego me ha ventido como esclavo.

                                                       Si hubiese sido yo como un insecto

                                                       volando por encima de mi amado,

                                                       su mano me arrancara;

                                                       si hubiérame entramado como hilo

                                                       un tejedor sobre su vestidura,

                                                       con su tramar habríame apartado.

                                                       Si doliente yaciera, no vendría

                                                       a ver mi enfermedad; si me muriera,

                                                       no habría de enterrarme a su costado.

                                                       Y si yo de mi amigo      los ojos no celara,

                                                       habría de abatirme

                                                       con el dardo del celo como a caza.

                                                       No haré del corazón      fiscal para mi amado

                                                       mientras me siga dando      el nombre de ministro.

                                                       Aprendió el corazón por sus acciones

                                                       a hacer mucho más puro mi deseo;

                                                       mostrome sus cimientos.

                                                       Que pudiera sufrir      los pecados de amigos

                                                       no imaginó mi alma, pero Dios

                                                       con su misericordia me ha ayudado.]

[To someone who send him feathers/A quien le envió unas plumas]

                                                      [Como el oro al fundirse      y como el aspecto

                                                       de las esmeraldas      y como alabastro

                                                       [...] canela      con caña aromática,

                                                       cual dedos de ninfas [...]

                                                       Rutilan cual rayo [...]

                                                       [...] Tu nombre      esculpo con ellas

                                                       en una poesía      de aroma exquisito

                                                       como en el que envueltos      están tus vestidos.]

[Against those who poison friendships]

                                                      [—¿Acaso has traicionado,      amigo, en los amores?

                                                       [...]

                                                       Desde que te apartaras,      mi angustia no se aleja

                                                       y el dolor ha plantado      sobre mí sus garras.

                                                       [...]

                                                       Yo te amé y fue tu alma      para mí como el alma

                                                       del viejo para el niño      que hiciera sus delicias.

                                                       Primero me plantaste      y luego me rechazas:

                                                       ¿acaso un hombre sabio      arranca sus plantíos?

                                                       Si de los generosos      y liberales eres,

                                                       ¿cómo es que menoscabas      y evitas la amistad?]

Missing you so much, Your Honor, that I am always somber and smiles seldom appear on my face, Yours faithfully/Echándoos de menos tanto, Su Señoría, que estoy siempre sombrío y la sonrisa raramente aparece en mi rostro, Suyo fielmente

                 a. r. ante Su Señoría

--

Notes

*  Adapted from Selected Poems of Solomon ibn Gabirol, translated by Peter Cole (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2001), & the Spanish version from Selomó ibn Gabirol—Poesía secular, by Elena Romero (Madrid: Alfaguara, 1978)

Finding that acute alcohol consumption had no reliable effect on risk-taking while gambling was consistent with existing animal research: No support was found for the relation between alcohol dose and risk-taking

Does Acute Alcohol Consumption Increase Risk-Taking while Gambling? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Tori L. Horn,James P. Whelan,Gregory T. Weil. Addiction, April 11 2022. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.15896

Abstract

Aims: To estimate the effect of acute alcohol consumption on risk-taking while gambling, examine blood alcohol concentration as a moderator, and explore possible moderators of this effect.

Design: A systematic review and meta-analysis was completed. A Boolean search strategy was used to identify studies that included (a) alcohol consumption as an independent variable; (b) a gambling or risk-taking task; (c) a control or placebo comparison; (d) human participants; and (e) English publications. Descriptive information, sample characteristics, and experimental data were extracted from each study.

Setting: Searched databases included: PsycINFO, Web of Science, Medline, Cochrane Library, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.

Participants: Experiments that compared the effects of alcohol and non-alcoholic or placebo beverages on risk-taking while gambling.

Measurement: Comprehensive Meta-Analysis version 3.3.070 was used. Standardized mean differences of risk-taking while gambling between the experimental and control conditions were calculated when studies did not report effect sizes. Random effects models were used for overall effect and meta-regressions while mixed effects models were used for subgroup analyses.

Findings: Twenty articles containing 47 alcohol versus control comparisons met inclusion criteria. The overall Hedges’ g for the difference between groups consuming alcohol and groups consuming a placebo or non-alcoholic drink control was 0.03, 95% CI [-.07, 0.12], p =.60, indicating no significant difference. Larger effect sizes were found for studies using non-alcoholic control drinks (Hedge’s g = .30, 95% CI [.01, 0.58]) compared to placebo beverages (Hedge’s g = -0.03, 95% CI [-0.13, 0.06]), Q(1)=4.67, p = .03.

Conclusions: Finding that acute alcohol consumption had no reliable effect on risk-taking while gambling was consistent with existing animal research. No support was found for the relation between alcohol dose and risk-taking. The significantly larger effect size for experiments using non-alcoholic versus placebo beverages suggests the potential role of expectancy effects.

Popular models on the threat–politics association suggest that threats cause right-wing political preferences; but failed replications got in the way

The complicated but solvable threat–politics relationship. Mark J. Brandt, Bert N. Bakker. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Volume 26, Issue 5, May 2022, Pages 368-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2022.02.005

Abstract: Popular models on the threat–politics association suggest that threats cause right-wing political preferences. Failed replications, crossnational variation, and examples of threats causing left-wing preferences suggest this relationship is more complicated. We introduce a model of the reciprocal threat–politics relationship that reconciles prior conflicting findings and raises new questions.

Keywords: threatpolitical preferencesideologypsychophysiologycrossnationalattitudes

Economic effects of voluntary religious castration on the informal provision of cooperation: The case of the Russian Skoptsy sect

Economic effects of voluntary religious castration on the informal provision of cooperation: The case of the Russian Skoptsy sect. Vladimir Maltsev. European Economic Review, Apr 11 2022, 104109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2022.104109

Abstract: The article examines the effects of voluntary religious castration (VRC) on the informal provision of cooperation through boycott. To do so, it analyzes the Russian Skoptsy sect, active from 1772 to 1930. The Skoptsy were outlawed by the Russian state and had to secure cooperation through informal means. To do so, the sect relied on the threat of boycott against noncooperative individuals. I argue that VRC ensured the credibility of this threat. First, VRC created a high entry cost, which screened for single-minded and patient individuals who placed high value upon repeated in-group interaction. Second, VRC created a high exit cost from the sect because of the hostile attitude of the Russian populace to castrated individuals. Moreover, the public could cheaply identify the ex-sect members and punish them because of permanent physiological changes caused by VRC. The credible threat of ostracism secured widespread cooperation among the Skoptsy and enabled the sect to support its members through a system of mutual aid and inheritance. Cooperation in the sect also allowed for a rapid creation of wealth through market collusion, making the Skoptsy one of the richest sects in Russia and abroad.

Keywords: boycottinformal governancecastrationSkoptsyRussia

Economic uncertainty appears to shift individuals into different life history strategies (pace of life) as a function of childhood social-economic status, suggesting how ecological factors & early life environment influence fertility-related decisions

Effects of economic uncertainty and socioeconomic status on reproductive timing: A life history approach. Kenneth Tan et al. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, Volume 3, 2022, 100040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2022.100040

Highlights

• Adaptive responses to economic uncertainty depend on the harshness of early-life environment, as reflected by childhood socioeconomic status

• Reproductive timing should also be influenced by economic uncertainty and childhood socioeconomic status

• Under economic uncertainty, people who grew up in lower-SES environments reported wanting children sooner

• Under economic uncertainty, people who grew up in higher-SES environments reported wanting children later

• Reproductive timing was determined by considering the desire between reproduction and furthering one's education or career

Abstract: Why do some people have children earlier compared to others who delay reproduction? Drawing from an evolutionary, life history theory perspective, we posited that reproductive timing could be influenced by economic uncertainty and childhood socioeconomic status (SES). For individuals lower in childhood SES, economic uncertainty influenced the desire to reproduce earlier compared to individuals higher in childhood SES. Furthermore, the decision regarding reproductive timing was influenced by tradeoffs between earlier reproduction or furthering one's education or career. Overall, economic uncertainty appears to shift individuals into different life history strategies as a function of childhood SES, suggesting how ecological factors and early life environment can influence fertility-related decisions at the individual level and may contribute to the highly variable fertility patterns observed across countries.

General discussion

We examined whether variability in reproductive timing and attitudes can be influenced by economic uncertainty. Results showed that the association between people's childhood environment and their desired reproductive timing depended on economic uncertainty cues in their current environments: When facing current economic uncertainty, individuals who grew up in resource-scarce (versus resource-abundant) environments reported more positive attitudes toward earlier reproductive timing and desired to have their first child sooner (i.e., faster life history strategy). These findings were robust to two different measures of childhood SES: objective and subjective childhood SES.

Furthermore, we provided some insight as to why individuals differed in their reports of reproductive timing and replicated the key interaction between childhood environment and current economic uncertainty on life history tradeoffs. Individuals who grew up in resource-scarce (versus resource-abundant) environments reported preferring earlier reproduction to investing in education or work experience (i.e., faster life history strategy) when they faced current economic uncertainty. It should be noted that individuals with lower childhood SES still reported scores above the midpoint, indicating that they favored investing in education or work experience, albeit less strongly. Importantly, these tradeoffs regarding reproductive vs. somatic effort desire mediated the effect of economic uncertainty and childhood SES on reproductive attitudes.

A meta-analytic summary

The effect of economic uncertainty on reproductive timing was consistent across differing samples and varied measures of childhood SES. Nonetheless, due to sample size limitations and differing effect sizes, we sought to test the robustness of our effects. We conducted an integrative data analysis (IDA; Curran and Hussong, 2009), a technique that allows for primary or secondary analyses of data from multiple samples, in order to increase power and provide an overall test of hypotheses across datasets. To conduct the IDA, we standardized childhood SES within their respective sample, removing sample-level mean and variance differences, and controlled for study sample. We focused on the outcome variable of desired age of first child as that was the same construct across both studies.

There was no significant main effect of economic uncertainty, b = 0.16, t(3851) = 1.28, p = .20; 95% CI [-0.09, 0.41], no significant main effect of childhood SES, b = 0.02, t(385) = .17, p = .87; 95% CI [-0.24, 0.28], but a significant main effect of study, b = -0.61, t(385) = -2.22, p = .03; 95% CI [-1.15, -0.07]. Most important, consistent with hypotheses, there was a significant childhood SES × economic uncertainty interaction, b = 0.30, t(385) = 2.30, p = .02, R2 = 0.30; 95% CI [0.04, 0.56].

Among participants in the economic uncertainty condition, those with higher (versus lower) childhood SESs desired children marginally significantly further in the future, b = 0.32, t(385) = 1.72, p = .08; 95% CI [-0.04, 0.69]; among participants in the control/economic certainty condition, we did not detect an association between childhood SES and desired reproductive timing, b = -0.8, t(385) = -1.53, p = .13; 95% CI [-0.64, 0.08]. Test of simple slopes at high (+1 SD) and low (-1 SD) levels of childhood SES revealed that individual simple slopes indicating an effect of economic uncertainty was not significant for low-childhood SES individuals, b = -0.12, t(385) = -.69, p = .49; 95% CI [-0.48, 0.23] but was significant for high-childhood SES individuals, b = 0.46, t(385) = 2.57, p = .01; 95% CI [0.11, 0.81]. In summary, the aggregated analysis show evidence in support of our predictions.

By examining economic uncertainty, we build on past work examining the effects of mortality cues and reproductive timing from a life history perspective (Griskevicius et al., 2011). Like mortality cues, economic uncertainty represents unpredictability and harshness in the environment—in this case, stemming from the lack of resources (Ellis et al., 2009). Both economic uncertainty and mortality threat manipulations are extrinsic stressors that signal current environmental threat, and although they have been shown to have similar effects across some outcomes such as impulsivity and risk-taking, this has yet to be examined for outcomes related to reproductive timing (Griskevicius et al., 2013; Griskevicius et al., 2011). Moreover, developed East Asian countries are facing especially low fertility rates, and modernization might make mortality cues less salient compared to economic uncertainty cues. Indeed, some research has shown that economic endeavors are especially prioritized over reproductive effort in developed East Asian countries (Yong et al., 2019). Hence, the current findings provide novel insights beyond past work, regarding the effects of economic uncertainty on whether and why people reared in wealthier (versus poorer) environments have children earlier versus later.

We found inconsistent effects in fertility expectations in our comparison conditions across both studies. Specifically, in Study 1, individuals who were raised in different childhood environments showed no differences in reproductive timing when facing economic certainty, replicating previous research suggesting that benign and safe environments might not elicit SES effects on life history strategies (Griskevicus et al., 2011; 2013). However, in Study 2, individuals raised in different childhood environments showed opposing effects in the control condition compared to the economic uncertainty condition. One possible explanation might lie in how risk preferences might change as a function of childhood environment and economic uncertainty (Nettle, 2009). Prior research shows that individuals raised in wealthier childhood environments express greater appetite for risks when there is no immediate threat (Griskevicius et al., 2011). It might be that, for our participants in the control condition, those raised in wealthier environments felt better able to risk earlier reproduction and cope with subsequent child rearing, whereas those raised in poorer environments preferred slightly less risk and focused on investing in somatic effort, especially so in a developed and urban environment such as Singapore. Future research could examine this idea more thoroughly. Regardless, what is key is that economic uncertainty elicited divergent life history strategies in terms of reproductive timing.

Implications

The current research has implications for various literatures. For instance, the findings help substantiate an evolutionary life-history mismatch perspective on reproductive decisions (Li et al., 2018). According to this perspective, humans have evolved mechanisms that take in environmental cues related to harshness and uncertainty and process them according to decision rules that produce output in the form of attitudes and behaviors regarding reproductive decisions. Although these decision rules, on average, led to adaptive decisions in the ancestral past, they are now processing evolutionarily novel inputs that may not have the same implications for reproductive fitness.

Importantly, because resource uncertainty may have had life-or-death consequences for offspring throughout human evolutionary history, mechanisms may have evolved to adaptively adjust reproductive strategies in response to cues of resource scarcity and uncertainty. As the current work suggests, even though the modern world is relatively safe and abundant, such mechanisms may nonetheless still be processing cues such as economic uncertainty. Combined with other evolutionarily novel features found in modern societies that may be similarly processed by reproductive mechanisms, such as enormously large population densities (Sng et al., 2018) and the insatiability of social status in an increasingly global world (Li et al. 2015; Yong et al., 2019), such cues may lead to a maladaptive slowing down of fertility to the point where local populations drastically shrink. Future research may benefit from investigating the extent to which these and other evolutionarily novel modern conditions (e.g., a lack of exposure to elements of nature that might signify safety and resource abundance in ancestral times; Li et al., 2018) may be contributing to the ultra-low fertility found in all East Asian countries, parts of Southeast Asia and Europe, and an increasing number of other modern societies.

Limitations and future directions

Although we consistently found moderating effects of economic uncertainty cues on the relationship between childhood SES and desired reproduction timing, there were minor limitations regarding our manipulations in Study 1 (i.e., status uncertainty and negative affect) that we tried to address in Study 2. It could also be noted that in spite of our Study 2 manipulation being adapted from prior research (e.g., Griskevicius et al., 2010), the focal manipulation was about a contextual manipulation of uncertainty (unemployment) whereas the control condition was about an individual manipulation of uncertainty (losing one's wallet). Even though we are confident in the validity of our manipulations and results, future research could utilize more robust manipulations of uncertainty and ensuing comparisons to gain a better understanding of the effects of uncertainty on life history strategies.

Furthermore, the range of childhood SES from which we sampled was limited. University students typically are young and often come from middle- or upper-level SES backgrounds. Sampling from a wider range of childhood SES may uncover more powerful effects of childhood environment on reproductive timing. Nevertheless, the fact that we repeatedly found the moderating effect of economic uncertainty on the effects of perceived childhood SES suggests this effect may be quite robust in this population. Similarly, we sampled from a limited range of ages. Even though life history decisions in terms of reproductive timing are likely highly relevant to college-aged people, recruiting a sample that varies more in participant age might reveal potential boundary conditions of our effects. It should also be noted that our participant sample was largely female, but we did not find any gender main effects nor interactions with any of our findings. Importantly, our results regarding gender are consistent with prior life history research that examined the effects of mortality cues on reproductive timing and risk-taking, where mortality cues influenced men and women similarly and there were also no potential sex differences found on the main effect of reproductive timing as well (see Griskevicius et al., 2011; Griskevicius et al., 2011;). Nonetheless, we might not have had enough power to detect gender interactions because of our sample; future research should ensure a more equal representation between the sexes, even though we are relatively confident regarding the results that there are no potential sex differences.

In addition, our samples are from Singapore—a nation that is at or near the lowest nationwide fertility rate in the world and constitutes a cultural departure from typical psychology samples that examine Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) participants (Henrich et al., 2010) . On the other hand, college students in Singapore do fall into the categories of E, I, and R. Future research could collect more culturally diverse samples to extend the generalizability of our results. Finally, given the limitations of our student samples, it remains unclear the extent to which our outcome measures that focus on intentions (i.e., desired age of first child, reproductive timing attitude, reproductive vs. somatic effort desire) generalize to actual reproduction timing and behavior. After all, most young undergraduates have little to no experience with reproductive decisions, and intentions to reproduce might not translate to actual reproduction behavior in the general population. However, meta-analytic data suggest that intentions strongly predict actual behavior, in spite of an intention-behavior gap (Sheeran and Webb, 2016). Furthermore, given that reproduction is costly both biologically and in terms of opportunity for increasing embodied capital, it would be adaptive for one to first have reproductive intentions to aid planning and preparing for the arrival of future offspring. As such, we believe that reproductive timing intentions are frequently a precursor to actual reproductive behavior. Nonetheless, future research should prospectively examine the association between childhood SES, economic uncertainty, and actual reproduction behaviors.

We did not fully examine the proximate psychological processes underlying these divergent effects. Future research is needed to examine other possible mediators, such as sense of control. Recent research points to sense of control as a psychological driver of behaviors associated with different life history strategies (Mittal and Griskevicius, 2014), and so may help explain why environmental uncertainty alters the association between childhood environment and reproductive timing, as well as other related concepts such as risk-taking and valuation of quantity versus quality (Griskevicius et al., 2013; White et al., 2013). Given that conditions of uncertainty are associated with less control, fast strategists may respond by prioritizing immediate reproductive efforts, which includes taking more risks for larger immediate payoffs and having children sooner (Mittal and Griskevicius, 2014). Conversely, slow strategists may respond by prioritizing somatic effort in an effort to regain the sense of control they are used to. Sense of control might also be related to optimism or confidence about abilities to deal with economic uncertainty, and results in the adoption of faster or slower life history strategies (Mittal and Griskevicius, 2014). Future research is needed to ascertain if sense of control or optimism are indeed mediating variables in the relationship between economic uncertainty and reproductive timing. One might also examine mortality thoughts that could arise from economic uncertainty, as resource scarcity could represent cues of unpredictability and harshness in ancestral environments (Griskevicius et al., 2013).

Finally, the link between economic uncertainty and fertility is particularly relevant in current times, given the coronavirus-19 pandemic and its influence on economic uncertainty and instability (see Fernandes, 2020). Future research can fruitfully investigate how variables such as disease prevalence—which has been shown to be linked adaptively to cross-cultural differences in personality traits (Schaller and Murray, 2008)—and economic uncertainty interact and influence reproductive timing mechanisms.

While caloric resctrictions (CR) & intermittent fasting improve lifespan in diverse mice, we observed no enhancement of working memory or contextual fear memory on this feeding, & 40% CR to be damaging in the context of long-term memory

Life-long Dietary Restrictions have Negligible or Damaging Effects on Late-life Cognitive Performance: A Key Role for Genetics in Outcomes. Andrew R. Ouellette et al. bioRxiv Apr 10 2022. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.04.09.487742

Abstract: Several studies report that caloric restriction (CR) or intermittent fasting (IF) can improve cognition, while others report limited or no cognitive benefits. Here, we compare the effects of 20% CR, 40% CR, 1-day IF, and 2-day IF feeding paradigms to ad libitum controls (AL) on Y-maze working memory and contextual fear memory (CFM) in a large population of Diversity Outbred mice that model the genetic diversity of humans. While CR and IF interventions improve lifespan, we observed no enhancement of working memory or CFM in mice on these feeding paradigms, and report 40% CR to be damaging in the context of long-term memory. Using Quantitative Trait Loci mapping, we identified the gene Slc16a7 to be associated with late-life long-term memory outcomes in mice on lifespan promoting feeding paradigms. Limited utility of dieting and fasting on memory in mice that recapitulate genetic diversity in the human population highlights the need for anti-aging therapeutics that promote cognitive function, with a neuronal monocarboxylate transporter encoded by Slc16a7 highlighted as novel target.

Communicating authenticity is associated with increased interest in and perceived connection to another person, more comments and views for TED talks, receiving a financial investment from investors, & more social media likes & retweets

Authentic First Impressions Relate to Interpersonal, Social, and Entrepreneurial Success. David M. Markowitz et al. Social Psychological and Personality Science, April 6, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506221086138

Abstract: This article examines how verbal authenticity influences person perception. Our work combines human judgments and natural language processing to suggest verbal authenticity is a positive predictor of interpersonal interest (Study 1: 294 dyadic conversations), engagement with speeches (Study 2: 2,655 TED talks), entrepreneurial success (Study 3: 478 Shark Tank pitches), and social media engagements (Studies 4a–c; N = 387,039 Tweets). We find that communicating authenticity is associated with increased interest in and perceived connection to another person, more comments and views for TED talks, receiving a financial investment from investors, and more social media likes and retweets. Our work is among the first to evaluate how authenticity relates to person perception and manifests naturally using verbal data.

Keywords: authenticity, impression formation, natural language processing, first impressions

Higher inequality creates an environment of restlessness in which both the poor and the rich feel obliged to seek wealth and status, albeit for different reasons

Restless in an Unequal World: Economic Inequality Fuels the Desire for Wealth and Status. Zhechen Wang, Jolanda Jetten, Niklas K. Steffens. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, April 3, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221083747

Abstract: Building on theories explaining social outcomes of economic inequality, our research examined the psychological impact of inequality on the desire for wealth and status. Our studies provide both experimental (Studies 1 and 3, Ns = 321 and 596) and correlational (Study 2; N = 141,477 from 73 countries and regions) evidence that higher inequality heightens people’s desire for wealth and status. Notably, this effect of inequality on desire is independent of the influence of societal wealth. Moreover, our results reveal social class differences in why inequality fuels motivations: Lower-class individuals are more likely to respond to higher inequality with a heightened desire reflecting self-improvement concerns, whereas upper-class individuals are more likely to respond with a heightened desire reflecting social comparison concerns. These findings suggest that higher inequality creates an environment of restlessness in which both the poor and the rich feel obliged to seek wealth and status, albeit for different reasons.

Keywords: economic inequality, social class, desire for wealth, desire for status

The overall effect size of having same-sex parents on the developmental outcomes of the children was positive and significantly different from that of heterosexual parents

A meta-analysis examining the relationship between parents’ sexual orientation and children's developmental outcomes. Mario I. Suárez,Elizabeth W. Stackhouse, Jeffrey Keese & Christopher G. Thompson. Journal of Family Studies, Apr 6 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2022.2060121

Abstract: Despite the Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) Supreme Court decision allowing same-sex marriage, the current political climate has emboldened state legislatures in the United States to push for anti-LGBTQ adoption legislation, some citing that LGBTQ couples have a negative effect on children. This meta-analysis synthesized data from 32 studies on 6 developmental outcomes (child gender role behaviour, gender identity, sexual orientation, cognitive function, psychological adjustment, and quality of parent–child relationship). The overall effect size of having same-sex parents on the developmental outcomes of the children was positive and significantly different from that of heterosexual parents. Moderator analyses found that location, socioeconomic status, type of relationship, date of publication, and the child's sexual preference were significant. We provide implications for practitioners and policy, as well as recommendations for future research in this area.

Keywords: Meta-analysissame-sex parentsLGBQqueerdevelopmentalsexual orientation

39,606 working adults in 49 countries: The self-employed consistently exhibit stronger religiosity of behaving, bonding, and belonging than paid workers

Individual Religiosity and Career Choice: Does Cultural Religiosity Moderate the Relationship? Abu H. Ayob, Shifa Mohd Nor. Cross-Cultural Research, April 6, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/10693971221080622

Abstract: Although research on the influence of religion on entrepreneurial entry has progressed substantially, the conceptual and empirical approaches are still far from being conclusive. To advance, we utilize the big our religious dimensions to examine how internal (believing and behaving) and external (bonding and belonging) religiosity may affect the propensity of individuals to be self-employed rather than paid employees. Together, we test if the country’s level of religiosity moderates the relationship. Drawing on the recent World Values Survey Wave 7 (2017–2021), we analyzed data from a sample of 39,606 working adults in 49 countries. In general, we found that the self-employed consistently exhibit stronger religiosity of behaving, bonding, and belonging than paid workers. However, the moderating effects suggest that religiosity at the country level prevails over individual religiosity—consistent with the idea that social environment is a more dominant factor even in individual decision making.

Keywords: religiosity, big four religious dimensions, cultural religiosity, career choice, self-employment, World Values Survey

We found that only 37% of asexual adults had concordant sexual and romantic orientations and that most asexual adults self-identify as either sex-neutral (41%) or sex-averse (54%)

Concordance Between Romantic Orientations and Sexual Attitudes: Comparing Allosexual and Asexual Adults. Alyssa N. Clark & Corinne Zimmerman. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Apr 5 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-021-02194-3

Abstract: Sexual and romantic orientations are often considered one and the same, and attitudes about engaging in sexual behavior are assumed to be predominantly positive. The current study explored the concordance between sexual and romantic orientations among allosexual and asexual adults as well as the frequency with which they identify as having a sex-positive, sex-neutral, or sex-averse attitude. As expected, allosexual adults were largely sex-positive (82%) and almost all (89%) had a romantic orientation that matched their sexual orientation. In contrast, we found that only 37% of asexual adults had concordant sexual and romantic orientations and that most asexual adults self-identify as either sex-neutral (41%) or sex-averse (54%). Further, we used a semantic differential task to assess sexual intimacy attitudes and how they varied for adults based on sexual attitude. Asexual adults, regardless of sexual attitude, had less positive attitudes overall than allosexual adults. Interestingly, aromantic asexual adults did not have more negative attitudes about sexual intimacy than romantic asexual participants. Although asexual adults held less positive attitudes about sex than allosexual adults, there was considerable heterogeneity within our asexual sample. The current study provides further insight into the concordance between romantic and sexual orientation, and the associations among sexual and intimacy attitudes for both allosexual and asexual adults. These findings will have implications for future research on how asexual adults navigate romantic relationships.

Time after time: Factors predicting murder series' duration

Time after time: Factors predicting murder series' duration. April Miin Miin Chai et al. Journal of Criminal Justice, Volume 81, July–August 2022, 101915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2022.101915

Abstract

Purpose: The duration of time that the serial offender remains free in the community to commit murders may be seen as a direct measure of their longevity; a sign of their success. The aim of this study is to predict the duration of the serial homicide series by examining the factors that contribute to the length of time a serial murderer is able to remain free of police detection.

Methods: Generalized estimating equations with a negative binomial link function were used to examine factors predicting the duration of series in a sample of 1258 serial murder cases.

Results: Results showed that offenders' criminal history, race (i.e., White and Hispanic), and victims of minority backgrounds significantly predicted longer duration in their murder series. A combination of multiple killing methods and atypical methods also predicted longer murder series, while the moving of the victim's body predicted shorter duration in the series.

Conclusions: This study builds upon the serial homicide literature, particularly the duration of the series. Results from this study help inform investigative efforts in serial homicide cases.

Psychopathy and crimes against humanity: A conceptual and empirical examination of human rights violators

Psychopathy and crimes against humanity: A conceptual and empirical examination of human rights violators. Robert D. Hare et al. Journal of Criminal Justice, Volume 81, July–August 2022, 101901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2022.101901

Abstract

Purpose: There is a dearth of empirical data on the contributions of personality, psychopathology, and psychopathy to terrorism and its actors. Because of a fortuitous set of circumstances, we had access to a sample of men convicted of crimes against humanity (CAH) committed during the Pinochet regime, each rated by expert clinicians on the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R). We also had PCL-R ratings for samples of general offenders and community participants.

Methods: We determined the psychometric properties of the PCL-R for these samples, performed structural equation modeling (SEM) to investigate the factor structure of the PCL-R, and conducted a latent profile analysis (LPA) of the obtained factors to identify classes or subtypes within the samples.

Results: The PCL-R's psychometric properties and factor structure were in accord with findings from other countries and settings. The PCL-R total scores of the CAH and general offenders were virtually the same but much higher than those of the community sample. However, the CAH group had extraordinarily high scores on the Interpersonal/Affective facets yet relatively low scores on the Lifestyle/Antisocial facets. LPA identified the expected four latent classes, with most CAH men located within the Callous-Conning class.

Conclusions: The results of this study provide unique information about the psychopathic propensities of a sample of state violators of human rights. Their pattern of PCL-R scores was consistent with an extreme disposition for self-serving, callous, and ruthless treatment of others, without guilt or remorse, and in the absence of a prior documented history of severe antisocial behavior.

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The relevance of the above outline is that the participants in the current study were members of the DINA, CNI, or related military and police organizations, referred to as the Armed Forces. They operated in an unstable political and socioeconomic environment that fostered and rewarded both the “bright” and “shadow” aspects of leadership (Fisher, Hutchings, & Sarros, 2010). The former includes physical courage, risk-taking, adaptability, self-reliance, and support of subordinates. The latter involves unethical or unlawful behaviors of leaders and followers, influenced or facilitated by being in a dangerous, chaotic, or violent environment. As noted by Fisher et al. (2010, p. S107), “The lack of taboos and prohibitive rules found in war may allow leaders to rationalize behaviors that would be unacceptable in a different context.” Before and during the Pinochet years, the socioeconomic and political conditions provided a fertile environment for ambitious men with bright and shadow leadership qualities who shared the regime's view that communism was a threat to the country. We might argue that such a milieu would be particularly favorable for those most willing and able to exploit the opportunities afforded by “darkness and chaos,” with little concern for the morality of their actions. Babiak and Hare (2019, p. 164) suggested, “[P]sychopaths are emotionally unaffected by the human physical and psychological carnage that accompanies chaotic disasters. They are, by nature, predisposed to take callous but pragmatic advantage of the turmoil and terror experienced by others.” Why, then, is there such a dearth of research on psychopathy and terrorism?

Psychologists and other behavioral scientists face several difficulties in researching terrorism and terrorists. These include definitional issues, the sheer complexity and diversity of terrorist organizations and actors, difficulty in gaining access to the actors, poor research designs, and failure to use validated clinical and forensic measures of personality traits and mental disorders. Victoroff (2005) noted that terrorism research is expensive, potentially dangerous, and may involve ethical concerns from institutional review boards (IRBs). Interestingly, Mills, Massoumi, and Miller (2020) have discussed the ethics of researching terrorism and political violence. Monahan (2015) has outlined the often-insurmountable difficulties he and his colleagues have in gaining Institutional Review Board [IRB] approval and institutional access to groups of known terrorists, particularly for research to identify risk factors for the future commission of terrorist acts.4 Morrison, Silke, and Bont (2021) have proposed a framework for IRBs to evaluate research proposals for terrorism research.

Behavioral scientists may be reluctant to study terrorism because it intrudes into other stakeholders' domains. As put by Horgan (2017, p. 201), “To characterize terrorism as an expression of psychological disturbance is problematic. At the very least, it might appear to belittle the social and political context in which terrorism flourishes while also cloaking the psychological development of the terrorist in unnecessary and misleading ideological baggage.” Behavioral scientists also may find—as did we—that it is daunting to enter fields of inquiry and debate that are vast, heterogeneous, imbued with ideological and political dynamics, and lacking in the fruits of impartial empirical endeavors. Schuurman (2020, p. 1020) described terrorism as “a field of study in which experts mostly talked amongst themselves, endlessly referencing books, articles, and media reports.” Our attempts to review the literature on terrorism—more accurately, the literature—confirmed Schuurman's description and revealed that journal, chapter, and book citation rates generally were surprisingly low for such vital topics.

Unlike most academic studies, which have ready access to student or offender participants, “...active terrorists are not likely to cooperate with psychological or psychiatric assessment...authorities may deny access to incarcerated terrorists because of security and secretive concerns. The result is that the data derived from systematic investigations are severely limited” Piccinni et al. (Piccinni, Marazziti, & Veltri, 2017, p. 142). In a review of recent terrorism research, Schuurman (2020) reported that only two of 2552 articles in nine journals devoted to terrorism involved clinical assessments, a situation he considered to be “...particularly problematic [and] urgently in need of a more extensive and robust empirical basis”(p. 1020).” However, according to Lutz (2010, p. 33), “Governments, much to the dismay of academics everywhere, are more interested in practical research (often narrowly defined) and not very interested in the pure research that so many academics are particularly fond of.” Even without the above obstacles, constructive and informative psychopathy research in this field requires willing participants and researchers with the training and experience to conduct reliable and valid clinical/forensic (PCL-R) assessments of the participants, not solely with self-report personality tests or inventories. In our view, self-reports are helpful but not sufficient for the individual assessment of psychopathy.

There is relatively little systematic empirical research on the personality and psychopathology of terrorists, with some notable exceptions discussed below. Well-known truisms about the topic are somewhat discouraging for potential researchers. As stated by Monahan (2012, p. 179), “In no society studied to date have personality traits been found to distinguish those who engage in terrorism from those who refrain from it.” Piccinni et al. (2017) stated, “No evidence exists that terrorist behavior is caused by either prior psychiatric disorders or psychopathy” (p.143). Corner et al. (2021) put it more forcefully, “The search for a single ‘terrorist personality was always overly ambitious, yet at the same time overly simplistic. It was doomed to failure from the start.” It also was naïve, or perhaps merely an early and convenient starting point for understanding the nature of those who engage in terroristic acts. No doubt for these reasons, Ferguson and McAuley (2021, p. 6) stated, “The research on how and why people become involved in violent extremism has moved away from answers based on psychopathology or personality profiles” to the roles of social and collective identity. The authors did not rule out the contribution of personality factors to understanding terrorism. Still, they noted that “community and societal context along with global ideological forces” might have more explanatory value than personality traits, a view consistent with much of the literature on terrorism and violent extremism. However, Merari (2010, p. 253) commented, “By and large, the opinion that terrorists do not have a common psychological profiles rests on the absence of research rather than on direct findings” [our emphasis].

Further, he advocated for the use of standard psychological tests and clinical interviews, as in his studies of suicide bombers. In this sense, the truisms mentioned above are misleading. In any event, behavioral scientists now direct their efforts to the development of theories and research on group and individual differences among terrorists (Corner et al., 2021; Doering et al., 2020; Horgan, 2017; Monahan, 2015), and within various forms of terrorism (Victoroff, 2005).

Some investigators now argue that it is essential to renew efforts to examine the roles of psychology and psychopathology—especially psychopathy—in accounting for the behaviors of terrorists (Gill & Corner, 2017; Horgan, 2017). Zepinic (2018) commented that psychopaths in power are involved in crimes against humanity, use terrorism as a methodology rather than ideology, do not consider themselves criminals, and rarely if ever, are assessed for psychopathy [our emphasis]. Bogerts et al. (2018, p. 131) suggested that a significant proportion of terrorists have a “biological predisposition to violent behavior.” The primary basis for this suggestion is the authors' review of the burgeoning literature on the structural and functional brain anomalies associated with psychopathy, empathy, and aggression and the argument that the violence of both psychopaths and terrorists is planned, instrumental, and remorseless.

Criminology, a discipline traditionally concerned with social, economic, and group factors, now considers personality—more specifically, psychopathy—as an integral part of its accounts of criminality. DeLisi (2009, p. 268, Note 2) commented, “Despite the long clinical history of psychopathy, it was arguably only ‘introduced’ to criminology in 1996 (Hare, 1996).” Fox, Jennings, and Farrington (2015) described how the interpersonal and affective features of psychopathy had provided insights into the ten leading developmental and life-course (DLC) theories in criminology. “It is important to incorporate such personality constructs into key criminological theoretical frameworks” (Fox et al., 2015, p. 275). Correctly measured, psychopathy has much to contribute to the understanding of terrorism and its actors, over and above the contributions of environmental forces (Bogerts et al., 2018; Gill & Corner, 2017).

At one time, there was speculation that the clinical construct of psychopathy could help to explain the dynamics of terrorism. However, the zeitgeist was not receptive to this suggestion. In an informative review and integration, Gill and Corner (2017) described how psychopathy (and more generally, mental disorders) progressed from being early keys to understanding terrorism to be part of more inclusive contextual-social-political-psychological variables. They noted that the empirical research was of poor quality and often confused psychopathy with more general psychopathology. Interestingly, Corner and Gill (2022, p. 392) commented, “Standard clinical procedures require direct access to individuals in clinical settings for prolonged periods. These protocols were not followed in terrorism studies.”

Further, “The lack of valid concepts and objective empirical research, alongside the advancement of psychological research concerning psychopathy, and development of the widely accepted validated measure (PCL-R) aided the gradual demise of the psychopath as-terrorist theory. This permitted other psychological theories to come to the fore.” The PCL-R provided a clinical/empirical measure that made it difficult for commentators to use the term casually and allowed clinicians and researchers to study both groups and the individuals therein. Häkkänen-Nyholm and Nyholm (2012, p. 195) commented, “...even if there are no empirical studies about the subject, a very dangerous situation may occur when you have persons with psychopathic traits in the lead of both the nation's politics and the military. In practice, the military and political leadership may be personified in one person.” Of course, the name that immediately comes to mind is Pinochet. However, we did not assess him and therefore did not comment on his personality traits; many others have done so.

In their review, Corner et al. (2021) identified only two studies that used a validated measure of psychopathy, the short form of the SRP (SRP-SF; Paulhus et al., 2016). Each study conducted an online survey of community participants to examine the association between the SRP-SF and self-reported right-wing authoritarianism (Jones, 2013) or self-sacrifice for a cause (Bélanger, Caouette, Sharvit, & Dugas, 2014). Most of the other reviewed studies had administered self-report inventories of normal-range personality traits—considered by some to be pertinent to psychopathy—to a variety of community and terrorist samples. These studies tell us little about the psychopathy-terrorism link. Investigation of the nexus between psychopathy and terrorism is demanding. It requires access to sizable groups of individuals involved in specified types of terrorist acts. It is essential to consider the milieu in which the acts occurred and to use validated clinical/forensic measures of psychopathy for group and individual analyses.