Monday, January 31, 2022

A Free-Market Environmentalist Transition toward Renewable Energy: The Cases of Germany, Denmark, and the United Kingdom

A Free-Market Environmentalist Transition toward Renewable Energy: The Cases of Germany, Denmark, and the United Kingdom. William Hongsong Wang, Vicente Moreno-Casas, Jesús Huerta de Soto. Energies 2021, 14(15), 4659; July 31 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154659

Abstract: Renewable energy (RE) is one of the most popular public policy orientations worldwide. Compared to some other countries and continents, Europe has gained an early awareness of energy and environmental problems in general. At the theoretical level, free-market environmentalism indicates that based on the principle of private property rights, with fewer state interventionist and regulation policies, entrepreneurs, as the driving force of the market economy, can provide better services to meet the necessity of offering RE to protect the environment more effectively. Previous studies have revealed that Germany, Denmark, and the United Kingdom have made some progress in using the market to develop RE. However, this research did not analyze the three countries’ RE conditions from the perspective of free-market environmentalism. Based on our review of the principles of free-market environmentalism, this paper originally provides an empirical study of how Germany, Denmark, and the United Kingdom have partly conducted free-market-oriented policies to successfully achieve their policy goal of RE since the 1990s on a practical level. In particular, compared with Germany and Denmark, the UK has maintained a relatively low energy tax rate and opted for more pro-market measures since the Hayekian-Thatcherism free-market reform of 1979. The paper also discovers that Fredrich A. Hayek’s theories have strongly impacted its energy liberalization reform agenda since then. Low taxes on the energy industry and electricity have alleviated the burden on the electricity enterprises and consumers in the UK. Moreover, the empirical results above show that the energy enterprises play essential roles in providing better and more affordable RE for household and industrial users in the three sampled countries. Based on the above results, the paper also warns that state intervention policies such as taxation, state subsidies, and industrial access restrictions can impede these three countries’ RE targets. Additionally, our research provides reform agendas and policy suggestions to policymakers on the importance of implementing free-market environmentalism to provide more efficient RE in the post-COVID-19 era.

Keywords: free-market environmentalism; renewable energy; entrepreneurship; public policy; Germany; Denmark; United Kingdom; European Union; EU Green Deal; energy transition; energy production; electricity prices; taxation; state subsidies; industrial access restriction; decision-making; political economy

5. Conclusions

Based on the review of the theoretical principles of free-market environmentalism, this paper has originally provided an empirical study of how Germany, Denmark, and the UK partly conduct free-market-oriented policies to successfully achieve their policy goal of broader use of RE since the 1990s.
The paper’s empirical results show that in 28 years, from 1990 to 2018, all three countries have shown positive features in their respective RE transitions. This tendency is especially evident for the increasing trend in the share of RE in gross electricity production and gross available energy and the decreasing trend in GHG emissions. However, as the supply of RE increased, the prices of electricity in the three countries did not show the same downward trend. This result alters the traditional view on these countries’ energy transitions, with the UK being more successful in a critical aspect of any energy transition: affordability.
Simultaneously, by measuring the specific data on taxation, state subsidies, and industrial access restrictions in the three sampled countries, we pointed out how these interventionist and regulation policies have caused damage to the three countries’ RE transition goals. Given free-market environmentalism, the cases of Germany and Denmark serve to illustrate how vital the entrepreneurship-based bottom-up forces (led by organizations and entrepreneurs in the form of RE cooperatives) are for the relative success of an energy transition. The German experience emphasizes political decentralization for decision-making and a certain freedom in the RE market. Inside this framework, a wide range of decentralized initiatives still thrive. This policy is the reason for the country’s energy transition success. However, there are distorting effects of government intervention, such as high electricity prices. They are caused by taxes, subsidies, and industry access restrictions. In general, Germany’s energy prices are not entirely market-oriented but are taxed and subsidized by the German government. As we have pointed out above, Germany’s energy prices are artificially high due to the FIT system. Therefore, Germany cannot be considered an ideal sample of free-market environmentalism. As previous research indicated, we also suggest Germany reduce the degrees of the above three interventionist policies as best as possible to enhance RE production and reduce electricity and RE prices.
Like the German case, the Danish energy policy has not wholly followed the principles of free-market environmentalism due to taxes, subsidies, and industry access restrictions. Denmark’s high electricity prices are due to high production costs and high taxes. As a result, Denmark faces a tough challenge to achieve an efficient and affordable RE transition concerning electricity prices. As previous research indicated, we also suggest Denmark should conduct tax reduction for its RE industry and eliminate state subsidies and industry access restrictions. However, despite the above policy deficiencies, Denmark is managing a RE transition due to the essential roles of decentralized local organizations and entrepreneurial activities. Moreover, more market-based RE innovation has created more jobs and reduced more GHG emissions since 1990. Even the literature that was not in favor of free-market environmentalism also acknowledged the Danish success in RE transition and its community and entrepreneurship-based characters [23].
On the other hand, compared with Germany and Denmark, the UK has maintained a relatively low energy tax rate and opted for more pro-market measures since the Hayekian-Thatcherism free-market reform of 1979. Fredrich A. Hayek’s theories have strongly impacted its energy liberalization reform agenda since then. Low taxes on the energy industry and electricity have alleviated the burden on electricity enterprises and consumers. Electricity prices have remained relatively low since 1990. However, interventionist policies such as state-regulated auctions and industry access restrictions have obstructed its energy transition. Moreover, RE policies are not as decentralized as Germany and Denmark, although RE innovation has increased in the three countries. Despite not having a purely free-market environmentalist energy policy, the UK has come closer to free-market environmentalism than the other two countries. Contrary to what some literature posits, the UK is achieving energy transition at a good pace, even beating Germany and Denmark by containing the rise in electricity prices. Therefore, with less intervention in the future, a better conducted RE market process could provide better conditions for British RE development.
Thus, during the post-COVID-19 era, to attain economic recovery and achieve a more advanced level of RE and protect the environment, it is essential to respect the principles of private property rights and free-market price coordination to acquire more and better RE. Hence, EU policymakers should adopt its RE policy from the perspective of free-market environmentalism to conduct better entrepreneurship for RE. Government RE’s intervention-regulation policies such as taxation, subsidies, and industry restrictions infringe on private property rights and cause economic discoordination and zero-sum games. Moreover, although the UK has not been an EU member since Brexit, its precious and successful experience of energy liberalization since the 1979 Hayekian-Thatcherism free-market energy reform could help other European countries to achieve better RE production and affordable energy prices. The UK experience and the free-market environmentalist policies that Germany and Denmark conduct could help other countries globally. Additionally, the empirical results in this paper show that the result of free-market environmentalism should be implemented over a long period. Policymakers should perceive that the free-market environmentalist policy approach and the entrepreneurial production of RE take time. Any interventionist eager for quick success may reverse the policy results. Hence, respecting entrepreneurship and reducing state intervention or regulation as much as possible is what global policymakers should execute during the post-COVID-19 era for a better energy transition.

Girls learn faster than boys when school is out (in both reading and math), but this advantage is completely eliminated when school is in session; schools act as a relatively standardizing institution, producing more similar patterns in learning

Schools as a Relatively Standardizing Institution: The Case of Gender Gaps in Cognitive Skills. Douglas B. Downey, Megan Kuhfeld, Margriet van Hek. Sociology of Education, January 27, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/00380407211070319

Abstract: Growing evidence suggests that contrary to popular belief, schools mostly do not generate achievement gaps in cognitive skills but, rather, reflect the inequalities that already exist. In the case of socioeconomic status, exposure to school often reduces gaps. Surprisingly little is known, however, about whether this pattern extends to gender gaps in cognitive skills. We compare how gender gaps in math and reading change when children are in school versus out (in the summer) among over 900,000 U.S. children. We find that girls learn faster than boys when school is out (in both reading and math), but this advantage is completely eliminated when school is in session. Compared to the family environment, schools act as a relatively standardizing institution, producing more similar gendered patterns in learning.

Keywords: quantitative research on education, summer setback, gender, school effects, standardized testing


Both facemasks and makeup tend to result in over-estimation of the young women's age compared to neutral faces, but the combination of both is not additive: 4 years on average

Your ID, please? The effect of Facemasks and Makeup on Perceptions of Age of Young Adult Female Faces. H. Davis, J. Attard-Johnson. Applied Cognitive Psychology, January 28 2022. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3923

Abstract: During the COVID-19 pandemic, wearing facemasks was mandatory in the United Kingdom except for individuals with medical exemptions. Facemasks cover the full lower half of the face, however the effect of facemasks on age perception is not yet known. The present study examined whether age estimation accuracy of unfamiliar young adult women is impaired when the target is wearing a facemask. This study also examined whether makeup, which has previously been shown to increase error bias, further impairs age estimation accuracy when paired with a facemask. The findings indicate that both facemasks and makeup tend to result in over-estimation of the young women's age compared to neutral faces, but the combination of both is not additive. Individual level analysis also revealed large individual differences in age estimation accuracy ranging from estimates within 1 year of the target's actual age, and age estimates which deviated by up to 20 years.


Does the Mafia Hire Good Accountants?

Bianchi, Pietro A. and Bianchi, Pietro A. and Francis, Jere R. and Marra, Antonio and Pecchiari, Nicola, Does the Mafia Hire Good Accountants? (November 5, 2021). SSRN: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3957650

Abstract: We investigate if organized crime groups (OCG) are able to hire good accountants. We use data about criminal records to identify Italian accountants with connections to OCG. While the work accountants do for the OCG ecosystem is not observable, we can determine if OCG hire “good” accountants by assessing the overall quality of their work as external monitors of legal businesses. We find that firms serviced by accountants with OCG connections have higher quality audited financial statements compared to a control group of firms serviced by accountants with no OCG connections. The findings provide evidence OCG are able to hire good accountants, despite the downside risk of OCG associations. Results are robust to controls for self-selection, for other determinants of auditor expertise, direct connections of directors and shareholders to OCG, and corporate governance mechanisms that might influence auditor choice and audit quality.

Keywords: accountant connections to organized crime, accountant criminal record, criminal investigations, financial reporting quality

JEL Classification: G31,G32,G38, K42, K49


Rodent-hunting cat ownership in childhood was associated with higher psychotic experience scores in male participants, but not in female participants

Conditional associations between childhood cat ownership and psychotic experiences in adulthood: A retrospective study. Vincent Paquin et al. Journal of Psychiatric Research, Jan 30 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.01.058

Abstract: Ownership of cats in childhood has been inconsistently associated with psychosis in adulthood. Parasitic exposure, the putative mechanism of this association, may be more common with rodent-hunting cats, and its association with psychosis may depend on other environmental exposures. We examined the conditional associations between childhood cat ownership and the frequency of psychotic experiences in adulthood. Adults (n = 2206) were recruited in downtown Montreal to complete a survey about childhood cat ownership (non-hunting or rodent-hunting), winter birth, residential moves in childhood, head trauma history, and tobacco smoking. The frequency of psychotic experiences (PE) was measured with the 15-item positive subscale of the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences. Associations between exposures and PE were examined in linear regressions adjusted for age and sex. Interactions among variables were explored using a conditional inference tree. Rodent-hunting cat ownership was associated with higher PE scores in male participants (vs. non-hunting or no cat ownership: SMD = 0.57; 95% CI: 0.27, 0.86), but not in female participants (SMD = 0.10; 95% CI: −0.18, 0.38). In the conditional inference tree, the highest mean PE score was in the class comprised of non-smokers with >1 residential move, head trauma history, and rodent-hunting cat ownership (n = 22; mean standard score = 0.96). The interaction between rodent-hunting cat ownership and head trauma history was supported by a post-hoc linear regression model. Our findings suggest childhood cat ownership has conditional associations with psychotic experiences in adulthood.

Keywords: Psychotic disordersToxoplasmaMachine learningCraniocerebral trauma



Sunday, January 30, 2022

Gender Diffs in Childhood Trauma, Schizotypy, Negative Emotions: Cognitive Disorganisation (poor attention, concentration, decision-making, social cognition) positively corrs w/physical neglect & sexual abuse as children in women, no links among men

Thomas, Elizabeth H.X., Susan L. Rossell, and Caroline Gurvich. 2022. "Gender Differences in the Correlations between Childhood Trauma, Schizotypy and Negative Emotions in Non-Clinical Individuals" Brain Sciences 12, no. 2: 186. Jan 29 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12020186

Abstract: Early life trauma has a negative impact on the developing brain, and this can lead to a wide range of mental illnesses later in life. Childhood trauma is associated with increased psychotic symptoms and negative emotions such as depressive, anxiety, and stress symptoms in adulthood. Childhood trauma has also been shown to influence sub-clinical ‘schizotypy’ characteristics of psychosis in the general population. As it has been reported that mental health outcomes after early life trauma exposure are influenced by gender, the current study aimed to investigate the gender differences in the relationship between childhood trauma, schizotypy and negative emotions. Sixty-one non-clinical participants (33 men and 28 women) aged between 18 and 45 completed self-report questionnaires to measure early life trauma, schizotypy and negative emotions. Despite similar levels of childhood trauma in men and women, early life trauma in women was associated with increased schizotypy personality characteristics (Cognitive Disorganisation) and increased depression, anxiety and stress later in life, but no correlations were observed in men. Our findings suggest that the sociocultural and biological processes affected by early life adversities may differ between the genders. Women may be more vulnerable to the influence of childhood trauma, which may be associated with increased psychopathology later in life.

Keywords: schizophrenia spectrum; early life adversity; depression; anxiety; stress



Risk Perception and Behaviour Change, COVID-19: Socializing rebounded after partial vaccination; after full vaccination, communal activities recovered; however, the propensity for protective behaviours declined

Jia, Jayson S., Yun Yuan, Jianmin Jia, and Nicholas Christakis. 2022. “Risk Perception and Behaviour Change After Personal Vaccination for COVID-19 in the USA.” PsyArXiv. January 30. psyarxiv.com/afyv8

Abstract: Although vaccines are crucial for giving pandemic-stricken societies the confidence to return to socioeconomic normalcy, vaccination may also induce laxity in personal protective behaviours (e.g., handwashing, facemask use). We use the quasi-experimental context of the COVID-19 vaccine rollout across the United States to quantify the impact of different stages of personal vaccination on people’s risk perceptions, daily activities, and risk mitigation behaviours, which we measure in a three-wave national panel study (N wave-1 = 7,358, N wave-2 = 3,000, N wave-3 = 2,345) from March to June, 2021, and validate using vaccination, infection, and human mobility data. Socializing rebounded after only partial vaccination. After full vaccination, communal activities recovered; however, the propensity for protective behaviours declined. The effects were heterogenous depending on vaccination level, demographics, and infection history. We further use a utility theory framework to model risk-value trade-offs and risk-construction for different behaviours.


Rolf Degen summarizing... The sport science and coaching community is very susceptible to pseudoscientific bullshit

Stoszkowski, John, Shane Littrell, and Dave Collins. 2022. “Cutting the Crap: The Perceived Prevalence of Pseudoscientific Bullshit in Sport Science and Coaching.”PsyArXiv. January 29 2022. https://psyarxiv.com/7t2my/

Abstract: Recent literature has identified and examined the construct of bullshit as a notable threat to the promulgation and use of accurate information. The parallel challenges posed by increasing availability of unfiltered online information have been identified as further exacerbating factors. Accordingly, the present paper adds to this perspective by examining susceptibility to and perceived frequency of bullshit in the sport science and coaching domain. Participants (N = 280) completed several validated instruments examining susceptibility, tendency to engage in and perceived experience of bullshit in their professional environments. Data suggest similar ratings to more general population samples, with educational level acting as a key moderating factor. Implications for practice and psychosocial approaches to bullshit are discussed, in tandem with recommendations for refinements to communication.


Why men are the main COVID-19 transmitters: Despite no observed differences in viral load in nasopharyngeal samples, adult males showed a significantly higher viral load in saliva samples than adult women; plus men have higher aerosol emissions

Men are the main COVID-19 transmitters: behavior or biology? Monize V. R. Silva, Mateus V. de Castro, Maria Rita Passos-Bueno, Paulo A. Otto, Michel S. Naslavsky & Mayana Zatz. Discover Mental Health volume 2, Article number: 1, 2022. Jan 24 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44192-022-00004-3

Abstract

Background: COVID-19 has affected millions of people worldwide. Clinical manifestations range from severe cases with lethal outcome to mild or asymptomatic cases. Although the proportion of infected individuals does not differ between sexes, men are more susceptible to severe COVID-19, with a higher risk of death than women. Also, men are pointed out as more lax regarding protective measures, mask wearing and vaccination. Thus, we questioned whether sex-bias may be explained by biological pathways and/or behavioral aspects or both.

Methods: Between July 2020 and July 2021, we performed an epidemiological survey including 1744 unvaccinated adult Brazilian couples, with there was at least one infected symptomatic member, who were living together during the COVID-19 infection without protective measures. Presence or absence of infection was confirmed by RT-PCR and/or serology results. Couples were divided into two groups: (1) both partners were infected (concordant couples) and (2) one partner was infected and the spouse remained asymptomatic despite the close contact with the COVID-19 symptomatic partner (discordant couples). Statistical analysis of the collected data was performed aiming to verify a differential transmission potential between genders in couples keeping contact without protective measures.

Results: The combination of our collected data showed that the man is the first (or the only) affected member in most cases when compared to women and that this difference may be explained by biological and behavioral factors.

Conclusions: The present study confirmed the existence of gender differences not only for susceptibility to infection and resistance to COVID-19 but also in its transmission rate.

Discussion

All the results obtained in the present study strongly suggest that males are not only more susceptible to COVID-19 severity, as shown in worldwide epidemiological surveys, but they are also more likely to transmit the virus to their partners when compared to females in the household transmission context. The epidemiological findings in the present survey are consistent with the results of other published studies involving couples where one of the partners was infected by their spouses [4041]. Female individuals aged between 17 and 65 years were also frequently found to be secondary cases [41].

Aiming to analyze a more homogeneous cohort and since age is an important predictor of severity and risk of death by COVID-19, we focused our survey on couples of comparable ages and economic status and therefore similar access to health care. It is also important to note that the survey was performed before the vaccination was started.

One of the possible current biological hypotheses for such gender variable transmission rate is a differential viral load in saliva, which has been explored as an important clinical measure of disease severity due to its positive association with many COVID-19 inflammatory markers [42]. These factors, together with the higher adoption of hygiene and protective measures among females, may justify the lower transmission rates in this group.

Interestingly, in a recent study of our group [43] it was observed that, although there were no observed gender differences in viral load in nasopharyngeal samples, adult males showed a significantly higher viral load in saliva samples (verified by RT-LAMP viral testing) than adult women.

These observations, together with the evidence of higher aerosol emission by men which makes them more likely to be “superspreaders” than women, support the hypothesis that male individuals are more efficient virus transmitters than females, which is related to biological and behavioral aspects.

This study has some limitations regarding the relatively modest number of couples included in the present cohort when compared with other epidemiological surveys of in-house transmission [4041]. Additionally, the couples who responded the questionnaire are on average younger than the mean age of the population since, in Brazil, younger people have more access and familiarity with internet than older adults [44]. Nevertheless, our study brings new knowledge to the field of public health regarding SARS-CoV-2 transmission dynamics.

In short, the present study confirmed the existence of gender differences not only for susceptibility to infection and resistance to COVID-19 but also in the transmission rate.


Unattractive faces are more attractive when the bottom-half is masked, an effect that reverses when the top-half is concealed

Unattractive faces are more attractive when the bottom-half is masked, an effect that reverses when the top-half is concealed. Farid Pazhoohi & Alan Kingstone. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications volume 7. Jan 24 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s41235-022-00359-9

Abstract: Facial attractiveness in humans signals an individual’s genetic condition, underlying physiology and health status, serving as a cue to one’s mate value. The practice of wearing face masks for prevention of transmission of airborne infections may disrupt one’s ability to evaluate facial attractiveness, and with it, cues to an individual's health and genetic condition. The current research investigated the effect of face masks on the perception of face attractiveness. Across four studies, we tested if below- and above-average attractive full faces are equally affected by wearing facial masks. The results reveal that for young faces (Study 1) and old faces (Study 2) a facial mask increases the perceived attractiveness of relatively unattractive faces, but there is no effect of wearing a face mask for highly attractive faces. Study 3 shows that the same pattern of ratings emerged when the bottom-half of the faces are cropped rather than masked, indicating that the effect is not mask-specific. Our final Study 4, in which information from only the lower half of the faces was made available, showed that contrary to our previous findings, highly attractive half-faces are perceived to be less attractive than their full-face counterpart; but there is no such effect for the less attractive faces. This demonstrates the importance of the eye-region in the perception of attractiveness, especially for highly attractive faces. Collectively these findings suggest that a positivity-bias enhances the perception of unattractive faces when only the upper face is visible, a finding that may not extend to attractive faces because of the perceptual weight placed on their eye-region.

General discussion

In the current research we investigated the effect of facial masks on the perception of facial attraction. Specifically, we tested whether below- and above-average full faces are equally affected by wearing facial masks. Our first study revealed that for younger faces a facial mask will increase the perceived attractiveness if the unmasked face is relatively unattractive, but wearing a mask will not help or hinder highly attractive faces. Study 2 revealed that this pattern of results generalises to old faces. And our Study 3 showed that the same effect occurs even when the bottom half of young faces are cropped rather than masked, i.e., the effect is not mask-specific.

Collectively, our first two studies, which show that face masks will help and never hinder one's perceived attractiveness conflicts with the findings of Miyazaki and Kawahara (2016) who showed that facial mask decrease the perceived attractiveness in a pre-COVID-19 pandemic era. Interestingly, the same lab has tested the same question recently during the pandemic and reported a similar result to our first two studies—attractiveness of below-average faces increased (Kamatani et al., 2021). A similar pattern of improvement in attractiveness ratings of unattractive faces is confirmed in another post-pandemic study (Patel et al., 2020), signifying the change in attitudes in response to social norms associated with mask wearing (Carbon, 2021). However, the results of Kamatani et al. (2021) for masked faces of above-average attractiveness showed a reduction in perception of attractiveness compared to unmasked faces—a result not found in the studies here and those of Patel et al. (2020). Such discrepancy might be a result of cultural differences (Japanese vs. Western) or due to differences in the stimuli used, in terms of their range of attractiveness.

Our final Study 4 examined if our previous findings are specific to the removal of information from the lower half of the face, or does it reflect a more general positivity bias where any incomplete face information is inferred to be attractive (Orghian & Hidalgo, 2020). The results did not support this possibility. When observers were asked to judge the attractiveness of faces that had the upper half of the face removed (including the eyes), the effect was to reduce the perceived attractiveness of highly attractive faces, and to have no positive effect on less attractive faces. This latter study demonstrates that in North America the effect of perceiving an incomplete face can be detrimental; and it supports previous work indicating that the eye-region has a special status in perceptions of facial attractiveness (Kwart et al., 2012; Nguyen et al., 2009). Indeed, the fact that in Studies 1–3 the eye region of the face was preserved helps to explain why masking or cropping the lower half of the face had no effect on the perceived attractiveness of highly attractive faces. Collectively, across four experiments, our study reveals that facial masks increase the perceived attractiveness of less attractive faces, while they do not affect those that are highly attractive. This finding applies to young and old faces, and it extends to other methods of isolating the region of the upper face; but it does not apply to the situation when the lower half of the face is isolated. These findings suggest that a positivity-bias enhances the perception of unattractive faces when only the upper face is visible, a finding that may not extend to attractive faces because of the perceptual weight placed on their eye-region.

Saturday, January 29, 2022

Claim: Like other creative workds, computer programs have aesthetic value, computer programming is a form of art

Kershaw, T. C., Clifford, R. D., Khatib, F., & El-Nasan, A. (2022). An initial examination of computer programs as creative works. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. Jan 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000457

Abstract: Products from many domains (art, music, engineering design, literature, etc.) are considered to be creative works, but there is a misconception that computer programs are limited by set expressions and thus have no room for creativity. To determine whether computer programs are creative works, we collected programs from 23 advanced graduate students that were written to solve simple and complex bioinformatics problems. These programs were assessed for their variability of expression using a new measurement that we designed. They were also evaluated on several elements of their creativity using a version of Cropley and Kaufman’s (2012) Creative Solution Diagnosis Scale that was modified to refer to programming. We found a high degree of variation in the programs that were produced, with 11 unique solutions for the simple problem and 20 unique solutions for the complex problem. We also found higher ratings of propulsion-genesis and problematization for the complex problem than for the simple problem. This combination of variation in expression and differences in level of creativity based on program complexity suggests that computer programs, like many other products, count as creative works. Implications for the creativity literature, computer science education, and intellectual property law, particularly copyright, are discussed.



From 2014... For both males and females, mathematical precocity early in life predicts later creative contributions and leadership in critical occupational roles

Life Paths and Accomplishments of Mathematically Precocious Males and Females Four Decades Later David Lubinski, Camilla P. Benbow, and Harrison J. Ke. Psychological Science, 2014, Vol. 25(12) 2217–2232.  https://www.gwern.net/docs/iq/smpy/2014-lubinski.pdf

Abstract: Two cohorts of intellectually talented 13-year-olds were identified in the 1970s (1972–1974 and 1976–1978) as being in the top 1% of mathematical reasoning ability (1,037 males, 613 females). About four decades later, data on their careers, accomplishments, psychological well-being, families, and life preferences and priorities were collected. Their accomplishments far exceeded base-rate expectations: Across the two cohorts, 4.1% had earned tenure at a major research university, 2.3% were top executives at “name brand” or Fortune 500 companies, and 2.4% were attorneys at major firms or organizations; participants had published 85 books and 7,572 refereed articles, secured 681 patents, and amassed $358 million in grants. For both males and females, mathematical precocity early in life predicts later creative contributions and leadership in critical occupational roles. On average, males had incomes much greater than their spouses’, whereas females had incomes slightly lower than their spouses’. Salient sex differences that paralleled the differential career outcomes of the male and female participants were found in lifestyle preferences and priorities and in time allocation.


Men say "I love you" before women do... and it happens across the globe

Men say "I love you" before women do: Robust across several countries. Christopher Watkins et al. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, January 27, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075221075264

Abstract: Feeling and expressing love is at the core of romantic relationships, but individuals differ in their proclivity to worry about their relationships and/or avoid intimacy. Saying ‘I love you’ signals a commitment to a future with our romantic partner. Contrary to gender stereotypes, research in the US demonstrates that men are more likely to confess love first. We aimed to replicate this sex difference in an online cross-national sample (seven countries, three continents), while testing for variation according to attachment style and environment (the national sex ratio). Men were more likely to confess love first in a relationship, with preliminary evidence that this was more likely when men had more choice (more female-biased sex ratio). Independent of biological sex, highly avoidant respondents were less happy to hear ‘I love you’ than less avoidant respondents, and highly anxious respondents were happier to hear ‘I love you’ than less anxious respondents. Our findings suggest that prior observations generalize beyond an ethnically homogenous sample, and incorporate attachment theory into the study of love confessions. Our research suggests a dissociation between initial declarations of love (moderated by biological sex) and emotional responses to love confessions, moderated by attachment style but not by biological sex.

Keywords: Affectionate communication, Attachment, Close relationships, Error Management Theory, Sex differences, Sex ratio, Speech acts


Chimps have more interests toward strange body parts, compared to typical parts, suggesting that they might have a body representation that is sufficiently sensitive to detect these aspects of strangeness

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) detect strange body parts: an eye-tracking study. Jie Gao, Ikuma Adachi & Masaki Tomonaga. Animal Cognition, Jan 28 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-021-01593-2

Abstract: This study investigated chimpanzee body representation by testing whether chimpanzees detect strangeness in body parts. We tested six chimpanzees with edited chimpanzee body pictures in eye-tracking tasks. The target body parts were arms or legs. For either target, there were four conditions: “normal” condition as control, where all bodies were normal; “misplaced” condition, where one arm or one leg was misplaced to an incorrect body location in each picture; “replaced by a chimpanzee part” condition, where one arm or one leg was replaced by a chimpanzee leg or arm, respectively, in its original place in each picture; and “replaced by a human part” condition, where one arm or one leg was replaced by a human arm or leg in each picture. Compared to the looking times toward the normal parts, chimpanzees had significantly longer looking times toward the human arms or legs. The looking times toward the misplaced parts were also longer than the normal parts, but the difference just failed to meet significance. These results indicate more interests toward strange body parts, compared to typical parts, suggesting that chimpanzees might have a body representation that is sufficiently sensitive to detect these aspects of strangeness.

Discussion

In this study, we tested six chimpanzees in eye-tracking tasks to examine whether they specifically attended to strange arms or legs of chimpanzee pictures, compared to normal arms or legs, to determine whether they possessed visual body representation. Compared with looking durations toward the normal body parts, the chimpanzees had significantly longer looking times toward the human arms and legs in place of the original chimpanzee arms and legs. This suggests that the chimpanzees noticed that the human parts were strange. They also showed longer looking times towards the misplaced parts than towards the normal parts, but the difference just failed to meet significance.

The “misplaced” condition and “replaced by a human part” condition showed different contrasts against the control condition: the former did not reach significance, although close, while the latter showed significance. The longest attention to the human parts is probably due to the inconsistency of the shapes, or their interests on human parts. Chimpanzees are able to detect an odd stimulus out of uniform distractors (Tomonaga 1998). Human arms and legs are hairless, and look differently from chimpanzee arms and legs, although the overall shapes are similar. In the other two experimental conditions, the manipulation was done with the body parts of the same chimpanzee body. Therefore, the special look of human body parts may have grabbed more attention. The chimpanzees we tested were very familiar with humans. They see and interact with multiple humans every day, and they could see humans in the institute and on the street. Therefore, they had been exposed to human body parts. That said, it is unlikely that they have seen the whole naked arms and legs of humans as were shown in the task; but the experience of exposure to partial human arms and legs may have triggered them to pay more attention to the human parts appearing on chimpanzee bodies and replacing chimpanzee body parts. Therefore, for the results in the “replaced by a human part” condition alone, the longer looking time could be attributed to their body representation, visual inconsistency, or interests to human bodies. To rule out the possibility that they showed longer looking time in this condition solely because of visual inconsistency or interests to humans, more control conditions could be added, or chimpanzees who have less exposure of partially naked humans could be tested. Nevertheless, when we combine all the results, we still tend to think chimpanzees may be able to detect strangeness in terms of body representation, because of the strong tendency of longer looking times towards the misplaced body parts than the normal parts and the tendency of shorter time to first fixation in the “misplaced” leg condition than the “normal” leg condition.

In the analyses of time-to-first-fixation data, we found that there was a significant interaction between condition and body part. The pairwise comparison showed significant differences in three pairs in leg data: the “misplaced” condition had shorter time to first fixation on AOIs than those in all three other conditions. It is possible that the misplaced legs make the whole body configuration look much stranger than a normal body as well as a body with its leg replaced by another part in the original typical position, leading to a much quicker detection. This was not the case for arm manipulation, and this is where the difference of the effect of condition lies for arm and leg manipulations.

The difference of results between arm and leg manipulations was not found in fixation duration, but time to first fixation, as mentioned above. In this specific case, the quicker detection to misplaced legs than legs in other conditions, but not in arms, may come from the fact that legs do not move in the same amplitude as arms. When chimpanzees move in a quadrupedal posture on the ground or in a bipedal posture when climbing, their arms and legs move in similar ranges. However, when manipulating objects on the ground, they reach for objects in places that are a bit far from them using arms not legs, and it could be seen as if the arms were “misplaced” from a distance (e.g., Hayashi and Matsuzawa 2003; Hayashi et al. 2005); chimpanzees also often raise their arms for social communications (Hobaiter and Byrne 2011), but they seldom “raise” their legs. The different function and use of arms and legs could cause chimpanzees detect misplaced legs more quickly.

In this study, we did not manipulate other body parts, such as head and torso. It will be interesting to further examine how their representation differ across various body parts. In a broader comparison counting all body parts, the difference between arms and legs may not be as large as that between head and limbs, or other contrasts. Studies asking children to recognize, name, and point at body parts do not demonstrate large differences between arms and legs, but the performances for eyes was much earlier in the development (MacWhinney et al. 1987; Waugh and Brownell 2015; Witt et al. 1990). Atypical body parts may suggest injury and care, so it is meaningful to examine whether and how knowledge for body parts differ, and which factors are related to this, such as function of the parts. Also, it will be interesting to examine the body representation of other species, too, e.g., preys. Do chimpanzees (and humans) have certain body representation and anatomy knowledge about their preys’ bodies, and do the knowledge help with efficient foraging and feeding?

All the manipulations in this study created strange images that will not occur in real life, yet the chimpanzees did not show significant differences in all manipulated conditions compared to control. One of the reasons could be due to the limited sample size. The significance of the random effect participant ID in both analyses of time-to-first-fixation data and fixation-duration data also indicates individual difference (Figs. 4567). If more individuals were tested, the results might have been more consistent. Because of the limited sample size, the conclusions should be generalized with caution, and data from more chimpanzee individuals or populations will be helpful to understand chimpanzees’ perception for atypical body parts.

The participants in this study were captive chimpanzees with a lot of exposure of humans. As discussed above, these individuals might be more sensitive to human body parts on chimpanzee bodies, compared to captive chimpanzees with limited human exposure or wild chimpanzees. However, the experience with humans may not affect chimpanzees’ body representation too much, according to our previous findings (Gao et al. 2020; Gao and Tomonaga 2020b). We tested the same chimpanzees, who were very familiar with humans, to see if they show the inversion effect for human bodies. We used humans in bipedal postures doing Tai chi, but the chimpanzees did not show any inversion effect. We then used bipedal humans showing daily postures (waving hands, walking, etc.), and the chimpanzees showed the inversion effect to these bodies, suggesting that visual experience is important to them. We also used images of crawling humans and horses in quadrupedal postures, which the chimpanzees had never seen previously, but they showed the inversion effect. Their limited inversion effects to humans, a familiar species, and the inversion effects to the quadrupedal animals that they had no visual experience about, suggest a strong tendency to refer to embodied cues, i.e., cues from their own bodies, in their body perception. Therefore, experience with humans may not affect chimpanzees’ body representation for conspecific bodies too much.

The random effect, picture ID, was significant in fixation-duration analysis (Fig. 8). This suggests that the results vary across the pictures. There are several outlier points, but not many. It is possible that the significance is related to the limited data we have: not every picture in each condition received a lot of fixations. As will be discussed below, it is inevitable to have many trials without any fixations in a chimpanzee experiment, and future studies could use more trials for more useful data points. Nevertheless, because the 20 pictures (with different kinds of manipulations) were used across conditions, this significant effect of picture ID does not interfere with the significance of condition, the main effect in the analysis.

There were several other limitations in this study. The number of trials in which the chimpanzees showed fixations to AOIs was less than half of the total trial numbers. Chimpanzees do not consistently look at the screen during a task. When they do, they typically view face and genital areas of a chimpanzee picture, while they allocate less attention to other body parts (Kano et al. 2015). More importantly, because the AOIs in this study were arms or legs (i.e., a small proportion of the whole picture), it is reasonable to have many trials without fixations on AOIs. Nevertheless, future studies in a similar setting could use a larger stimulus set to ensure more data points.

When we prepared the stimuli, the pictures were chosen randomly, and the body parts for manipulations were chosen based on picture editing convenience; we hoped to minimize editing to avoid any effects of unnatural picture manipulations. Overall, we edited 10 left arms, 10 right arms, 5 left legs, and 15 right legs. This should not fundamentally affect the experiment, because chimpanzees were in various positions (e.g., sitting, walking to the left, walking to the right, and bipedal standing), and left/right discrimination was less prominent than in a situation involving only bipedal animals. Nonetheless, future studies should carefully consider left/right bias to ensure a more balanced experimental design.

In summary, our results showed a significant longer looking time towards human body parts on chimpanzee bodies, and two non-significant tendencies: (1) shorter latencies for fixating misplaced legs, and (2) longer looking times towards misplaced parts, compared to normal body parts. These detections of strange body parts indicate that chimpanzees might have a body representation of the typical chimpanzee body. Conspecific body representation has ecological value. For example, it helps animals discriminate among conspecific individuals and individuals of other species (and then they can decide whether to fight them, socially interact with them, prey and feed on them, or ignore them). Strangeness on body parts of living individuals can indicate injury, and body representation can help trigger emotional and behavioral changes to facilitate care for these individuals (Hirata et al. 2017; Matsumoto et al. 2016; Sato et al. 2019). From an evolutionary perspective, evidence of body representation among chimpanzees indicates that the common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans might also have this type of visual representation. Of course, this conclusion needs to be supported by more data from more participants and from studies with further examinations besides arm and leg manipulations. Nevertheless, if this is true, it will lead to many interesting questions. Because both chimpanzees and humans are highly social species, and both encounter many other individuals, it is important to investigate whether body representation originates from the accumulated visual experience of conspecifics’ bodies. Investigation of this point requires examination of more solitary species, such as orangutans, as well as examination of body representation development. If the representation is present in solitary species or develops before intensive social interactions with other individuals, body representation may have more fundamental functions in animals’ life as follows: apart from aiding interactions with other individuals, body representation may be involved in many self-centered activities (Shapiro 2019). Further investigations of body representation and its interactions with other psychological processes are important for understanding how animals coordinate themselves with the outside world.


Friday, January 28, 2022

Individuals who described themselves as "victims" in their dating profiles received considerably fewer matches

To date a “victim”: testing the stigma of the victim label through an experimental audit of dating apps. Douglas N. Evans, Chunrye Kim & Nicole M. Sachs. Journal of Experimental Criminology, Jan 27 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-022-09500-6

Abstract

Objectives: Publicly revealing prior victimization could produce negative reactions and could affect a self-identified victim’s initiation of romantic relationships.

Methods: To measure victim stigma, an experimental audit design used six study profiles, each with pictures of a Black, Latinx, or White cisgender female or cis-male and bio text that in the experimental condition included a briefstatement of prior victimization, to compare match rates of profiles disclosing prior victimization with identical profiles not disclosing victimization.

Results: Disclosing victimization reduced total matches for all profiles regardless of sex or race. Racial congruence analyses of matches indicated that relative to the White control profile, all other study profiles were more likely to match with dating app users of a different race/ethnicity, except for the White male victim profile.

Conclusions: The stigma of the victim label may discourage people from disclosing their prior victimization. Racial congruence findings suggests that victim stigma may differ across different racial and ethnic groups.


Replicated successfully: When an ostensibly prosocial action also serves some private goal, the action is viewed as less virtuous than a purely selfish act

The tainted altruism effect: a successful pre-registered replication. Valerie Alcala, Kendra Johnson, Caroline Steele, Juanshu Wu, Donglai Zhang and Harold Pashler. Royal Society Open Science, January 26 2022. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211152

Abstract: Newman and Cain (Newman, Cain 2014 Psychol. Sci.25, 648–655 (doi:10.1177/0956797613504785)) reported that observers view a person's choices as less ethical when that person has acted in response to both altruistic and selfish (commercial) motivations, as compared with purely selfish interests. The altruistic component reduces the observers' approval rather than raising it. This puzzling phenomenon termed the ‘tainted altruism’ effect, has attracted considerable interest but no direct replications in prior research. We report direct replications of Newman and Cain's Experiments 2 and 3, using a larger sample (n = 501) intended to be fairly representative of the US population. The results confirm the original findings in considerable detail.

4. General discussion

The replication crisis has generated concern and worry across the field of psychology for the last decade. Too few replications have been conducted to provide a broad sense of the validity of the psychological literature as a whole, but the results to date have not been terribly encouraging. Canny observers have long noted that even in the presence of the usual bias toward publishing positive effects, there can also be a ‘reverse publication bias' that might favour the publication of failures to replicate more than successful replications like the current paper. This can potentially distort the literature in the opposite direction from the classic publication bias effect [810]. Clearly, in order to see reality accurately, careful direct replications need to be conducted frequently (at least for influential findings) and published without regard to their outcome.

To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first direct replication of any of the experiments in Newman & Cain's [1] study on tainted altruism. Using a larger sample size and a US sample intended to be fairly representative of the US population at least with respect to age, sex and ethnicity, we readily reproduced the main results in the original studies quite closely.

The evidence of state pre-K effectiveness has gotten worse over the last 50 years: Either pre-K is getting worse, or we're getting better at measuring how ineffective it is at raising achievement

Durkin, K., Lipsey, M. W., Farran, D. C., & Wiesen, S. E. (2022). Effects of a statewide pre-kindergarten program on children’s achievement and behavior through sixth grade. Developmental Psychology, Jan 2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001301

As state-funded pre-kindergarten (pre-K) programs expand, it is critical to investigate their short- and long-term effects. This article presents the results through sixth grade of a longitudinal randomized control study of the effects of a scaled-up, state-supported pre-K program. The analytic sample includes 2,990 children from low-income families who applied to oversubscribed pre-K program sites across the state and were randomly assigned to offers of admission or a wait list control. Data through sixth grade from state education records showed that the children randomly assigned to attend pre-K had lower state achievement test scores in third through sixth grades than control children, with the strongest negative effects in sixth grade. A negative effect was also found for disciplinary infractions, attendance, and receipt of special education services, with null effects on retention. The implications of these findings for pre-K policies and practices are discussed.

Comments by Derek Thompson on Twitter: (16) Derek Thompson on Twitter: https://t.co/Qc4Hi6AtfH


Love in the Time of COVID-19: A Multi-Wave Study Examining the Salience of Sexual and Relationship Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Love in the Time of COVID-19: A Multi-Wave Study Examining the Salience of Sexual and Relationship Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Agnieszka E. Pollard & Ronald D. Rogge. Archives of Sexual Behavior Jan 27 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-021-02208-0

Abstract: The current study used Family Systems Theory as a framework to clarify the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sexual, romantic, and individual functioning. Specifically, sexual and romantic functioning were modeled as key mechanisms linking COVID-19 related stressors (as predictors) to aspects of individual functioning over time (as outcomes). A sample of 1,241 sexually active adults in relationships (47% married/engaged) was recruited from March 5 to May 5, 2020: 82% White, 66% women, M = 34 years old, 58% heterosexual. All participants completed a baseline survey and 642 participants completed at least one of the six, monthly, follow-up surveys. Multilevel SEM models evaluated the model both at the level of stable between-person differences (i.e., level 2) and at the level of within-person change across time (i.e., level 1). The findings suggested that COVID-19 related stress was predictive of lower sexual, romantic, and individual functioning in both levels of the model. Significant indirect paths supported the proposed mediation at the level of within-person change across time: elevations in COVID-19 stress within specific months predicted corresponding drops in sexual functioning, which in turn predicted corresponding drops in romantic functioning, which in turn predicted corresponding drops in individual well-being (highlighting points of intervention). In contrast, at the level of between-person differences, stable levels of sexual and relationship satisfaction across the 6 months of the study were not associated with stable levels of COVID-19 stressors (representing sources of resilience that promoted well-being) and stable levels of stress from social isolation predicted stably higher amounts of communicating affection to one’s loved ones (suggesting a need for affiliation in the face of chronic stress) whereas stable difficulties with orgasms were linked to stable irritability toward partners and depressive symptoms. Multigroup analyses suggested that the findings generalized across gender, age, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, relationship stage, and cohabitation groups. Spillover effects within a Family Systems Theory framework clarify how upheaval of the COVID-19 pandemic could have impacted sexual, romantic, and individual functioning in a process-oriented framework, highlighting sources of resilience (sexual satisfaction, communicating affection) and risk (orgasm difficulties).

Discussion

The current study sought to integrate key findings from the fields of individual psychopathology, research on sexual health, marital and couples research, and positive psychology by drawing key indicators from each of those fields into a large and comprehensive model. The primary goal of the study was therefore to draw upon those rich empirical traditions to develop a more nuanced understanding of precisely how the pandemic might have impacted sexual health, relationship health, and individual distress and well-being. The study applied Family Systems Theory (Broderick, 1993; Minuchin, 1985) as a conceptual framework to enrich our understanding of how the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated public health measures employed to flatten the curve (e.g., lockdowns, school and business closures, social distancing measures) might have impacted the lives of individuals in the US. Multilevel analyses in multi-wave data collected from a large online sample during the first 7–8 months of the pandemic in the US supported the proposed mediation at the level of within-person change across time. Thus, elevations in COVID-19 stress within specific months predicted corresponding drops in sexual functioning, which in turn predicted corresponding drops in romantic functioning, which in turn predicted corresponding drops in individual well-being. These findings highlight how the individual, sexual, and relationship systems are interconnected across time, such that disruptions in one system from an external stress (like a global health crisis) will likely spill over into other systems. In contrast, at the level of between-person differences, stable levels of sexual and relationship satisfaction across the 6 months of the study were unassociated with stable levels of COVID-19 stressors, representing sources of resilience that promoted well-being across the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in the US. Extending those positive results, stable levels of stress from social isolation predicted stably higher amounts of communicating affection to one’s loved ones, suggesting that individuals tend to reach out to those they love and strengthen those connections in the face of a massive world-wide crisis. Finally, stable difficulties with orgasms were linked to stably higher levels of irritability with partners and depressive symptoms, representing a key risk factor. Multigroup analyses suggested that the findings generalized across gender, age, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, relationship stage, and cohabitation groups. Taken as a set, these findings underscored the critical nature of sexual and romantic functioning in the lives of individuals, highlighting potential sources of resilience/risk at the level of stable between-subject differences (e.g., stable levels of sexual and relationship satisfaction, and stable difficulties with orgasms), and potential warning signs and treatment targets on a monthly basis (e.g., sudden spikes in the stress of social isolation, sudden drops in current sexual and/or relationship functioning). Thus, these findings offer relevant insights for clinicians and therapists working with individuals and couples during periods of acute stress like the global health crisis brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Implications

Family Systems Theory Offers an Effective Conceptual Framework The current study represents an early attempt to apply the broader family systems framework to romantic relationships which may or may not include children. As the romantic dyad is already recognized as a key system within the larger family unit, we would posit that this application of family systems theory is simply focusing in on aspects of that theory that are relevant to childfree family units, as well as to romantic dyads before they start having children. Even without a child in the home, romantic couples can be conceptualized as business partners, roommates, lovers, close friends and confidants. We would argue that from a family systems lens, each of those represent potentially distinct systems within the larger relationship. Consistent with the current findings and previous work supporting the spillover hypothesis (e.g., Sturge-Apple et al., 2006), disruptions or conflict within one of those systems can rapidly influence couples’ functioning in other systems. For example, conflict in the bedroom (i.e., poorer sexual functioning) could spillover into conflict over chores (affecting the roommate system), and drops in the support a couple provides one another (affecting the friendship system). The current study applied Family Systems Theory by examining sexual, romantic, and individual functioning as key systems within primary relationships. Consistent with Family Systems theory, the results suggested that external stressors from the COVID-19 pandemic indeed impacted all three of those systems across time, and suggested possible mechanistic paths for how those systems were interrelated. Future work in couples could therefore extend the current findings by using Family Systems theory as a conceptual framework for modeling the inter-relatedness of various dyadic processes.

There are Different Forms of COVID-19 Related Stress Although the two forms of COVID-19 related stress examined in the current study (i.e., COVID-19 concerns and social isolation stress) are by no means the only forms of stress individuals experienced during the pandemic, distinct patterns of results emerged for these two forms of stress. Specifically, COVID-19 related health concerns were significantly predictive at a between-person level across the 6 months. Greater overall levels of COVID-19 concerns across the 6 months predicted poorer sexual functioning (i.e., more orgasmic difficulties), poorer romantic functioning (i.e., greater irritability with partner), and poorer individual functioning (i.e., more depressive symptoms, lower vitality) across the 6 months. These findings are consistent with previous research indicating chronic health stress to be linked to greater depressive symptoms (e.g., Dalton et al., 2016) even 2 to 5 years later (e.g., Raposa et al., 2014), highlighting the broader links between external stress and lowered relationship functioning (see Randall & Bodenmann, 2017 for a review) and suggesting that higher COVID-19 related stress is linked to lower vitality (e.g., Peltz et al., 2020), less frequent sexual activity and affection (e.g., Luetke et al., 2020), and lower sexual satisfaction (e.g., Schmid et al., 2021). It is notable that after controlling for stable levels of COVID-19 related stress across the 6 months of the study, shifts in COVID-19 concerns within individuals within specific months failed to emerge as a significant predictor of corresponding shifts in sexual, romantic, or individual functioning. This begins to suggest that the COVID-19 health concerns assessed in the current study might reflect more chronic and stable concerns (e.g., COPD, diabetes, or some other comorbidity in oneself or in a loved one) which would be likely to impact an individual’s reactions to the pandemic in a more global manner, raising the personal relevance of the pandemic throughout the 6 months.

In contrast, current findings suggested that the stress associated with the social isolation impacted individuals both in its stable between-person differences across the 6 months, as well as through within-person fluctuations in specific months of the pandemic. Thus, this form of COVID-19 related stress demonstrated both stable trait-like properties (i.e., predictive between-person differences), as well as dynamic state-like properties (i.e., predictive within-person change across time), highlighting how both forms of differences helped to shape sexual, romantic, and individual functioning across the first 6–7 months of the pandemic in the US. These findings are consistent with previous research suggesting that greater social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic is linked to lower vitality and psychological adjustment (e.g., Arslan, 2021), and greater strain on family relationships (e.g., Evans et al., 2020).

Extending these patterns beyond the context of the current pandemic, previous work has linked social isolation and social disconnectedness to poorer individual and relationship health, specifically demonstrating social isolation to predict not only greater depressive symptoms or diagnoses (e.g., Ge et al., 2017; Matthews et al., 2016; Suwinyattichaiporn & Johnson, 2020) and lower vitality (e.g., van Steenbergen et al., 2015), but also greater physical and verbal aggression towards a romantic partner (e.g., Stets, 1991). To that effect, a randomized clinical trial investigating the effectiveness of a social isolation prevention program for older adults has indicated a significant increase in life satisfaction 1 and 6 months post-program among those who received treatment, whereas those within the control group saw no change (Saito et al., 2012). The current study therefore builds on previous findings not only by demonstrating the impact of COVID-19 related social isolation on sexual and romantic functioning, and by highlighting sexual and romantic functioning as possible mechanisms, but also by distinguishing the between-person and within-person associations of social isolation.

Exploring Other Forms of COVID-19 Related Stress. Although the two forms of COVID-19 related stress examined in the current study yielded distinct and meaningful results, future work could extend the current findings by examining additional forms of stress that individuals might experience during a pandemic. For example, it could also be useful to examine how financial/employment instability or the stress of new parenting demands impacted various forms of interpersonal and individual functioning during the pandemic. The current results begin to suggest that those alternative forms of stress could very likely offer their own predictive patterns within the Family Systems Theory framework.

Sexual and Relationship Satisfaction Emerged as Key Mechanisms. At the within-person level, sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction significantly mediated the association between social isolation stress and individual functioning. Spikes in social isolation stress shaped corresponding decreases in sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction, which then let to more depressive symptoms and lower vitality. Thus, the adverse impact of social isolation on sexual and romantic functioning served to intensify the direct associations between social isolation stress and poorer individual functioning. These findings are consistent with spillover effects (e.g., Sturge-Apple et al., 2006) as conceptualized within Family Systems Theory (Broderick, 1993; Minuchin, 1985) as well as other research indicating links between greater sexual functioning and mental health (e.g., Costa & Brody, 2012; Levin, 2007; Palmore, 1982). The current findings build on previous research by examining associations between acute stress, sexual functioning, relationship functioning, and individual well-being within a broader multivariate, conceptual framework evaluated across time. This allowed us to directly model modeling how pandemic-related stress adversely impacted individual well-being through a cascade of lower sexual satisfaction and correspondingly lower relationship satisfaction. These findings may illuminate possible points of intervention, as the results suggested that partnered individuals with robust levels of sexual and relationship satisfaction would have experienced some protection from the adverse impact of social isolation stress across time via the direct and indirect links from those mechanisms to individual outcomes.

Stable Difficulties with Orgasms as a Mechanism. Higher chronic levels of COVID-19 stress across the 6 months of the study were directly linked to higher chronic levels of irritability within relationships. That association was also strengthened by chronic COVID-19 stress predicting chronic difficulties with orgasms, which in turn predicted greater irritability across the 6 months of the study. Thus, stable between-person differences in orgasm difficulties served as a potential mechanism more tightly linking those variables. These findings are consistent with previous work indicating that sexual dysfunctions have been linked to negative conflict in relationships (e.g., Metz & Epstein, 2002). Extending these quantitative findings, qualitative analyses of interviews of 20 Iranian women highlighted conflict and annoyance with a partner as key obstacles to reaching orgasm during sexual activity (Nekoolaltak et al., 2017). Those qualitative findings dovetail the current findings, suggesting that the links between orgasm difficulties and irritability within relationships might be transactional in nature, reciprocally influencing one another across time. The current findings further suggested that chronic levels of orgasm difficulties across the 6 months served to intensify the direct association between higher chronic COVID-19 stress and greater depressive symptoms across the 6 months of the study. This is consistent with previous findings linking orgasm difficulties to greater depressive symptoms (e.g., Castellini et al., 2010; Forbes et al., 2016; Shifren et al., 2008). The current study contextualizes those previous findings within the Family Systems Theory, helping to highlight the potential mediating roles of difficulties with orgasms.

Sexual Satisfaction as a Source of Resilience. One of the strongest indirect paths to emerge in the model was at level 2 (the level of stable between-person differences on average levels of each construct across the 6 months of the study) and involved sexual satisfaction as a predictor. Contrary to our expectations, stable levels of COVID-19 related stress across the first 6 months of the pandemic in the United States were not significantly predictive of corresponding stable levels of sexual satisfaction. This would suggest that at an aggregate level (i.e., across all partnered participants) individuals’ overall levels of sexual satisfaction were on average unaffected by COVID-19 related stress. These results are consistent with the mixed findings concerning the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sexual health (e.g., Panzeri et al., 2020). They suggest that for individuals in relationships with high levels of sexual functioning, their sexual health could serve as a source of resilience whereas for individuals in relationships with low levels of sexual functioning, their sexual difficulties could serve as a source of risk. Consistent with this, stably high levels of sexual satisfaction across the six months of the study were not only directly predictive of higher stable levels of vitality, but were also strongly linked to higher stable levels of relationship satisfaction, which in turn predicted even higher vitality across the first six months of the pandemic. Thus, sexual satisfaction emerged as a key factor fueling well-being in the first six months of the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting its key roles in individual health and well-being (e.g., Costa & Brody, 2012; Levin, 2007; Palmore, 1982).

Communicating Affection as a Source of Resilience. An unexpected finding emerged suggesting that stable between-person differences in COVID-19 health concern stress across the 6 months predicted greater stable levels of communicating affection to loved ones across those 6 months. Thus, fears over contracting COVID-19 and potentially getting sick themselves or losing loved ones seemed to help individuals prioritize their close relationships, spurring them on to share their love and affection with the people around them. These findings are consistent with the literature suggesting that connection with others is a fundamental human need (e.g., Baumeister & Leary, 1995) and that individuals are driven to affiliate (i.e., tend and befriend others) under conditions of stress (e.g., Taylor, 20022006). In fact, the communication of affection has been shown to be an effective coping mechanism as it has been shown to help buffer couples from the strain of a new child on their romantic relationships (Shapiro et al., 2000). The current findings are also consistent with recent theoretical assertions (based on applying the Family Systems Theory to the pandemic) that adaptive relationship processes could likely buffer the link between pandemic stress and well-being (Pietromonaco & Overall, 2021). The current study therefore builds on previous work by demonstrating affiliation (via the communication of affection) as an effective coping mechanism during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Limitations and Future Directions

The current study builds on a body of predominantly cross-sectional work by analyzing longitudinal data collected from a robust sample during a critical time in history, while the COVID-19 pandemic began to spread through the United States. By drawing key constructs from multiple fields of study (individual psychopathology, positive psychology, sexual health, and couples and marital research) and integrating them within a Family Systems Theory framework, the current study also sought to provide a more nuanced understanding of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of individuals in the US. The results underscored the importance of sexual and romantic functioning as potential mechanisms linking COVID-19 related stress to individual well-being, thereby highlighting potential sources of resilience and risk.

Despite these strengths, a number of issues limit the current findings. First, the current data was analyzed in a sample predominantly made up of white individuals and women. Although our large sample size provided 419 men and 231 non-white individuals, future studies with more diverse samples are needed to explore the generalizability of the current findings. Second, the study relied solely on self-report data, raising concerns of responses being limited by: possible lack of insight (i.e., being unaware or out of touch with one’s own behavior and/or internal experiences and therefore having a difficult time accurately completing self-report scales), potential reporting biases, and social desirability. To address this, future studies could collect data from multiple informants (i.e., including data from participants’ friends, family members, and/or romantic partners), collect observational data, and assess possible response biases to ensure the results remain consistent when such limitations are addressed. Extending this point, although social desirability has been shown to be somewhat less of a problem for survey data collected online (Richman et al., 1999), the current study did not specifically assess levels of socially desirable responding. Thus, future studies could examine this as a possible source of additional variance in models of functioning during pandemics. Third, the current sample consisted of data from only one partner from each couple, providing a one-sided perspective on each relationship. Future research would benefit from collecting data from both romantic partners, providing a more balanced view of the relationships and enabling dyadic analyses. Fourth, although this study examined two specific forms of COVID-19 related stress, the pandemic and associated public health measures created a wide range of chaos and upheaval to daily life across the globe. Thus, future work could extend these findings and the Family Systems Theory by examining other sources of stress and upheaval as potential predictors. Fifth, recruitment for the current study just as the pandemic was beginning to draw national attention in the United States and as a result, the study did not include a truly pre-pandemic baseline for a majority of the participants and the baseline survey did not include measures of COVID-19 related stress. Thus, although the current findings speak to how the constructs examined fluctuated in response to one another across time during a pandemic, they do not provide insights on how those dynamics might have changed in comparison to pre-pandemic functioning. Future work could seek to examine components of this same model once the pandemic has largely resolved to determine the degree to which the associations between various relationship systems (i.e., sexual, romantic, and individual functioning) were specific to the context of the pandemic or were more broadly representative of relationship dynamics. Sixth, although the study title, “The Finding Pleasure in Sex Study” effectively communicated to prospective participants the contents of the survey, that title could have inadvertently encouraged the participation of people with more sex-positive attitudes and with greater comfort discussing sexuality and sexual behavior. Balancing this concern, for a majority of the respondents (i.e., those recruited after the mid-March 2020 modification of the study), the bulleted list presenting the details of the study immediately following that title included a bullet referring to tracking the effects of COVID-19 across time: “Track the impact of COVID-19 on the lives of individuals” thereby increasing the relevance of the study to a broader range of individuals. Future work could explore the current model using a less sexualized title to help reduce the risk of biasing the sample. Extending that concern, the study made use of a convenience sample, thereby introducing possible selection bias. Future work could use random sampling techniques to help ensure the representativeness of the final sample. Seventh, several of the measures used in the current study were developed by the authors given the tight timeframe for starting a COVID-19 focused project. Future work could therefore extend research on this model and these hypotheses by examining them using existing measures that are well validated within the current literature. Eighth, although the analyses demonstrated reasonable model invariance across multiple demographic groups and controlled for parent and employment status as possible confounds, it is still likely that factors not included in the current model might have also helped to shape the sexual, romantic, and individual functioning of individuals during the first six months of the pandemic. Thus, future work could extend the current findings by examining a broader set of potential confounds. Extending that point, despite highlighting sexual functioning and romantic functioning as key factors influencing the impact of the pandemic on people in relationships, those are not the only possible sources of risk and resilience for individuals. Thus, future work could extend the current work by examining a broader set of risk/resilience factors including: (1) background factors and traits (e.g., sex positivity/erotophilia, trait negativity, optimism, grit, mindfulness, psychological flexibility, adult attachment), (2) other relationship subsystems (e.g., friendship/support/intimacy, business/financial, roommate/chores/distribution of labor), and (3) other external factors (e.g., work stress, conflict or stress within individuals’ extended family/friend network). Ninth, although over 600 respondents provided follow-up data, roughly 40% of our baseline parents did not complete any follow-up surveys. This level of attrition is not uncommon for online studies involving no monetary compensation (e.g., Daks et al., 2021) and was likely due in part to the upheaval of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of individuals. Strengthening this concern, although attrition analyses failed to find differences on levels of income or vitality at baseline, those analyses suggested that the respondents providing follow-up data were somewhat more likely to be white, heterosexual, women, engaged/married, have graduate degrees, and who were slightly older with slightly fewer depressive symptoms. Thus, despite having roughly 1800 distinct longitudinal assessments from over 600 respondents supporting our models (above and beyond the baseline assessments from all respondents), future longitudinal studies could extend the current study by seeking funding to help reduce attrition, thereby ensuring that the subtle attrition differences within the current study are not unduly influencing the results. Tenth, although a majority of the sample were in fairly long-term relationships (63% together for 3 + years, 71% together for 2 + years), 18% of the individuals had been in their relationships for less than a year and 10% had been with their partners less than 6 months, suggesting fairly high levels of heterogeneity in the relationships represented in the sample. Fortunately, the model results remained invariant across relationship stages and across cohabiting vs non-cohabiting couples, suggesting that the results generalized across the wide range of relationship stages included in the study, thereby reducing concerns about relationship heterogeneity. Future work could serve to replicate the current findings by examining similar models within more specific stages of romantic relationships. Despite these limitations, the results offer compelling evidence suggesting sexual and romantic functioning as buffering mediators between COVID-19 related stress and poor individual functioning.