Subjective life expectancy and actual mortality: results of a 10-year panel study among older workers. Hanna van Solinge, Kène Henkens. European Journal of Ageing, June 2018, Volume 15, Issue 2, pp 155–164. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10433-017-0442-3
Abstract: This research examined the judgemental process underlying subjective life expectancy (SLE) and the predictive value of SLE on actual mortality in older adults in the Netherlands. We integrated theoretical insights from life satisfaction research with existing models of SLE. Our model differentiates between bottom-up (objective data of any type) and top-down factors (psychological variables). The study used data from the first wave of the Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute Work and Retirement Panel. This is a prospective cohort study among Dutch older workers. The analytical sample included 2278 individuals, assessed at age 50–64 in 2001, with vital statistics tracked through 2011. We used a linear regression model to estimate the impact of bottom-up and top-down factors on SLE. Cox proportional hazard regression was used to determine the impact of SLE on the timing of mortality, crude and adjusted for actuarial correlates of general life expectancy, family history, health and trait-like dispositions. Results reveal that psychological variables play a role in the formation of SLE. Further, the results indicate that SLE predicts actual mortality, crude and adjusted for socio-demographic, biomedical and psychological confounders. Education has an additional effect on mortality. Those with higher educational attainment were less likely to die within the follow-up period. This SES gradient in mortality was not captured in SLE. The findings indicate that SLE is an independent predictor of mortality in a pre-retirement cohort in the Netherlands. SLE does not fully capture educational differences in mortality. Particularly, higher-educated individuals underestimate their life expectancy.
Wednesday, May 30, 2018
Trends in flood losses in Europe over the past 150 years: There is large underreporting of smaller floods beyond most recent years
Trends in flood losses in Europe over the past 150 years. Dominik Paprotny, Antonia Sebastian, Oswaldo Morales-Nápoles & Sebastiaan N. Jonkman. Nature Communications, volume 9, Article number: 1985 (2018). DOI:10.1038/s41467-018-04253-1, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-04253-1
Abstract: Adverse consequences of floods change in time and are influenced by both natural and socio-economic trends and interactions. In Europe, previous studies of historical flood losses corrected for demographic and economic growth (‘normalized’) have been limited in temporal and spatial extent, leading to an incomplete representation of trends in losses over time. Here we utilize a gridded reconstruction of flood exposure in 37 European countries and a new database of damaging floods since 1870. Our results indicate that, after correcting for changes in flood exposure, there has been an increase in annually inundated area and number of persons affected since 1870, contrasted by a substantial decrease in flood fatalities. For more recent decades we also found a considerable decline in financial losses per year. We estimate, however, that there is large underreporting of smaller floods beyond most recent years, and show that underreporting has a substantial impact on observed trends.
Abstract: Adverse consequences of floods change in time and are influenced by both natural and socio-economic trends and interactions. In Europe, previous studies of historical flood losses corrected for demographic and economic growth (‘normalized’) have been limited in temporal and spatial extent, leading to an incomplete representation of trends in losses over time. Here we utilize a gridded reconstruction of flood exposure in 37 European countries and a new database of damaging floods since 1870. Our results indicate that, after correcting for changes in flood exposure, there has been an increase in annually inundated area and number of persons affected since 1870, contrasted by a substantial decrease in flood fatalities. For more recent decades we also found a considerable decline in financial losses per year. We estimate, however, that there is large underreporting of smaller floods beyond most recent years, and show that underreporting has a substantial impact on observed trends.
Are Men’s Religious Ties Hormonally Regulated? It seems that too much androgen load reduces those ties. Author think it is causal, not just correlation.
Are Men’s Religious Ties Hormonally Regulated? Aniruddha Das. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40750-018-0094-3
Abstract
Objectives: Studies based on the “challenge hypothesis” have linked men’s androgens—testosterone and DHEA—to short term mating and antisocial behaviors. Causal direction at a given stage of the life cycle remains ambiguous. Religion is a major social institution through which actions violating social norms are controlled. Thus, ties to this institution may be lower among men with higher androgen levels. The present study queried these linkages.
Procedures: Data were from the 2005–2006 and 2010–2011 waves of the National Social Life, Health and Aging Project (NSHAP), a national probability sample of older U.S. adults. Analysis was through autoregressive cross-lagged panel models (minimum N = 1071).
Results: Higher baseline levels of both testosterone and DHEA prospectively predicted religious ties, whether measured through attendance at services or network connections to clergy. Moreover, contrary to arguments of sociocultural modulation of androgens, the pattern of associations was most consistent with hormonal causation of religious connections. Results were robust to a range of time invariant and time varying confounders, including demographics, hormone supplements, and physical health.
Conclusions: Findings add to the growing evidence that religiosity may have physiological and not simply psychosocial roots. Implications for hormonal confounding of previously published religion-deviance linkages, and for neuroendocrine underpinnings of population-level social and cultural patterns, are discussed.
Abstract
Objectives: Studies based on the “challenge hypothesis” have linked men’s androgens—testosterone and DHEA—to short term mating and antisocial behaviors. Causal direction at a given stage of the life cycle remains ambiguous. Religion is a major social institution through which actions violating social norms are controlled. Thus, ties to this institution may be lower among men with higher androgen levels. The present study queried these linkages.
Procedures: Data were from the 2005–2006 and 2010–2011 waves of the National Social Life, Health and Aging Project (NSHAP), a national probability sample of older U.S. adults. Analysis was through autoregressive cross-lagged panel models (minimum N = 1071).
Results: Higher baseline levels of both testosterone and DHEA prospectively predicted religious ties, whether measured through attendance at services or network connections to clergy. Moreover, contrary to arguments of sociocultural modulation of androgens, the pattern of associations was most consistent with hormonal causation of religious connections. Results were robust to a range of time invariant and time varying confounders, including demographics, hormone supplements, and physical health.
Conclusions: Findings add to the growing evidence that religiosity may have physiological and not simply psychosocial roots. Implications for hormonal confounding of previously published religion-deviance linkages, and for neuroendocrine underpinnings of population-level social and cultural patterns, are discussed.
Mate copying has been documented in female Drosophila melanogaster; we report on experimental evidence for mate copying in males of this species in which females can actively reject males and prevent copulation
Mate copying in Drosophila melanogaster males. Sabine Nöbel, Mélanie Allain, Guillaume Isabel, Etienne Danchin. Animal Behaviour, Volume 141, July 2018, Pages 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.04.019
Highlights
• Reported evidence of male mate copying is rare, but common in females of many taxa.
• We provide first evidence for male mate copying in D.melanogaster.
• Measuring courtship behaviour is a good indicator to evaluate male mate choice.
Abstract: To assess potential mates' quality individuals can observe sexually interacting conspecifics. Such social information use is called mate copying and occurs when observer individuals witnessing sexual interactions of conspecifics later show a mating preference for mates that were seen mating. Most studies have focused on female mate copying, as females are usually the choosy sex. However, much less is known about the existence of male mate copying, probably because of the usual strong asymmetry in sex roles. Mate copying has been documented in female Drosophila melanogaster, and here we report on experimental evidence for mate copying in males of this species in which females can actively reject males and prevent copulation. As mate choice implies high costs for males we assumed that they perform mate copying as well. We created two artificial female phenotypes by randomly dusting females with green or pink powders, and virgin naïve observer males were given the opportunity to see a demonstrator male choosing between a pink and a green demonstrator female. Immediately afterwards, observer males were given the choice between two new females, one of each colour. To circumvent the difficulty of determining actual male mate preference, we used two complementary indices of male mate choice, both of which provided evidence for male mate copying. Informed observer males showed a bias towards females of the colour they saw being chosen during demonstrations, while uninformed males chose randomly between pink and green females. This suggests that male fruit flies can also perform mate copying. Although significant, our results in males were less clear-cut than in females in previous studies. However, like females, D. melanogaster males can mate copy based on a single observation. The importance and generality of such mate copying abilities in nature, and their potential impact on the evolution of Drosophila and probably other invertebrates, need further exploration.
Keywords: fruit fly; male mate copying; public information; social learning
Highlights
• Reported evidence of male mate copying is rare, but common in females of many taxa.
• We provide first evidence for male mate copying in D.melanogaster.
• Measuring courtship behaviour is a good indicator to evaluate male mate choice.
Abstract: To assess potential mates' quality individuals can observe sexually interacting conspecifics. Such social information use is called mate copying and occurs when observer individuals witnessing sexual interactions of conspecifics later show a mating preference for mates that were seen mating. Most studies have focused on female mate copying, as females are usually the choosy sex. However, much less is known about the existence of male mate copying, probably because of the usual strong asymmetry in sex roles. Mate copying has been documented in female Drosophila melanogaster, and here we report on experimental evidence for mate copying in males of this species in which females can actively reject males and prevent copulation. As mate choice implies high costs for males we assumed that they perform mate copying as well. We created two artificial female phenotypes by randomly dusting females with green or pink powders, and virgin naïve observer males were given the opportunity to see a demonstrator male choosing between a pink and a green demonstrator female. Immediately afterwards, observer males were given the choice between two new females, one of each colour. To circumvent the difficulty of determining actual male mate preference, we used two complementary indices of male mate choice, both of which provided evidence for male mate copying. Informed observer males showed a bias towards females of the colour they saw being chosen during demonstrations, while uninformed males chose randomly between pink and green females. This suggests that male fruit flies can also perform mate copying. Although significant, our results in males were less clear-cut than in females in previous studies. However, like females, D. melanogaster males can mate copy based on a single observation. The importance and generality of such mate copying abilities in nature, and their potential impact on the evolution of Drosophila and probably other invertebrates, need further exploration.
Keywords: fruit fly; male mate copying; public information; social learning
Laughter Is (Powerful) Medicine: the Effects of Humor Exposure on the Well-being of Victims of Aggression
Laughter Is (Powerful) Medicine: the Effects of Humor Exposure on the Well-being of Victims of Aggression. David Cheng, Rajiv Amarnani, Tiffany Le, Simon Restubog. Journal of Business and Psychology, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10869-018-9548-7
Abstract: Aggression at work is an expensive and widespread problem. While a large body of research has studied its antecedents and consequences, few studies have examined what victims can do to help mitigate the damage once it has occurred. Many practitioners and scholars have suggested that workers seek out humor to help them deal with the impact of stressors such as aggression, but little is known about whether humor can actually help victims deal with the psychological damage caused by aggression in the workplace. This paper presents a programmatic series of four experimental studies that examine whether and how exposure to humorous stimuli improves well-being among victims of interpersonal aggression by integrating the superiority theory of humor with Lazarus and Folkman’s transactional model of stress and coping. Study 1 (N = 84 students) showed that exposure to humor had a positive effect on well-being in a sample based in the Philippines. Consistent with theoretical prescriptions from the superiority theory of humor, this effect was mediated by increased momentary sense of power. Study 2 (N = 205 students) found the same positive effects of humor exposure on well-being in a sample based in Australia even when manipulating perpetrator power. These findings were replicated in studies 3 (N = 175 MTurk workers) and 4 (N = 235 MTurk workers) among a diverse sample of workers based in the USA.
Abstract: Aggression at work is an expensive and widespread problem. While a large body of research has studied its antecedents and consequences, few studies have examined what victims can do to help mitigate the damage once it has occurred. Many practitioners and scholars have suggested that workers seek out humor to help them deal with the impact of stressors such as aggression, but little is known about whether humor can actually help victims deal with the psychological damage caused by aggression in the workplace. This paper presents a programmatic series of four experimental studies that examine whether and how exposure to humorous stimuli improves well-being among victims of interpersonal aggression by integrating the superiority theory of humor with Lazarus and Folkman’s transactional model of stress and coping. Study 1 (N = 84 students) showed that exposure to humor had a positive effect on well-being in a sample based in the Philippines. Consistent with theoretical prescriptions from the superiority theory of humor, this effect was mediated by increased momentary sense of power. Study 2 (N = 205 students) found the same positive effects of humor exposure on well-being in a sample based in Australia even when manipulating perpetrator power. These findings were replicated in studies 3 (N = 175 MTurk workers) and 4 (N = 235 MTurk workers) among a diverse sample of workers based in the USA.
Tuesday, May 29, 2018
Dark Personality Voters Find Dark Politicians More Relatable and Fit for Office
Dark Personality Voters Find Dark Politicians More Relatable and Fit for Office. William Hart, Kyle Richardson, , Gregory K. Tortoriello. Journal of Research in Personality, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.05.007
Highlights
• Dark personalities evaluate dark characteristics in politicians less negatively.
• Dark personalities perceive nice (vs. dark) politicians as less relatable.
• Dark personalities show a reduced preference for nice (vs. dark) politicians.
• Findings supported and extended political congruency theory.
Abstract: We tested the scope of the congruency model of political preference by examining how people high in various dark personalities evaluate political candidates with dark characteristics. In Study 1, participants high in dark personalities reported enhanced self-possession of dark characteristics and, in general, more tolerance of those characteristics in politicians. In Study 2, although participants viewed a wholesome (vs. dark) politician as more similar to the self and likeable, this effect diminished as participants indicated greater possession of dark personalities. Exploratory analyses involving other perceiver traits (self-esteem, political conservatism/liberalism) yielded additional insights about tolerance for dark politicians. Findings contribute to understanding how people high in dark personalities evaluate others and offer a novel perspective on similarity-liking effects in candidate evaluation.
Keywords: Dark Triad; Narcissistic tolerance; Political congruency theory; Similarity-liking principle; Social perception
Highlights
• Dark personalities evaluate dark characteristics in politicians less negatively.
• Dark personalities perceive nice (vs. dark) politicians as less relatable.
• Dark personalities show a reduced preference for nice (vs. dark) politicians.
• Findings supported and extended political congruency theory.
Abstract: We tested the scope of the congruency model of political preference by examining how people high in various dark personalities evaluate political candidates with dark characteristics. In Study 1, participants high in dark personalities reported enhanced self-possession of dark characteristics and, in general, more tolerance of those characteristics in politicians. In Study 2, although participants viewed a wholesome (vs. dark) politician as more similar to the self and likeable, this effect diminished as participants indicated greater possession of dark personalities. Exploratory analyses involving other perceiver traits (self-esteem, political conservatism/liberalism) yielded additional insights about tolerance for dark politicians. Findings contribute to understanding how people high in dark personalities evaluate others and offer a novel perspective on similarity-liking effects in candidate evaluation.
Keywords: Dark Triad; Narcissistic tolerance; Political congruency theory; Similarity-liking principle; Social perception
Average Associations Between Sexual Desire, Testosterone, and Stress in Women and Men Over Time: Testosterone negatively predicted partnered desire in women, not effect in men
Average Associations Between Sexual Desire, Testosterone, and Stress in Women and Men Over Time. Jessica C. Raisanen et al. Archives of Sexual Behavior, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-018-1231-6
Abstract: Sexual desire and testosterone are widely assumed to be directly and positively linked to each other despite the lack of supporting empirical evidence. The literature that does exist is mixed, which may result from a conflation of solitary and dyadic desire, and the exclusion of contextual variables, like stress, known to be relevant. Here, we use the Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds as a framework for examining how testosterone, solitary and partnered desire, and stress are linked over time. To do so, we collected saliva samples (for testosterone and cortisol) and measured desire as well as other variables via questionnaires over nine monthly sessions in 78 women and 79 men. Linear mixed models showed that testosterone negatively predicted partnered desire in women but not men. Stress moderated associations between testosterone and solitary desire in both women and men, but differently: At lower levels of stress, higher average testosterone corresponded to higher average solitary desire for men, but lower solitary desire on average for women. Similarly, for partnered desire, higher perceived stress predicted lower desire for women, but higher desire for men. We conclude by discussing the ways that these results both counter presumptions about testosterone and desire but fit with the existing literature and theory, and highlight the empirical importance of stress and gender norms.
Abstract: Sexual desire and testosterone are widely assumed to be directly and positively linked to each other despite the lack of supporting empirical evidence. The literature that does exist is mixed, which may result from a conflation of solitary and dyadic desire, and the exclusion of contextual variables, like stress, known to be relevant. Here, we use the Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds as a framework for examining how testosterone, solitary and partnered desire, and stress are linked over time. To do so, we collected saliva samples (for testosterone and cortisol) and measured desire as well as other variables via questionnaires over nine monthly sessions in 78 women and 79 men. Linear mixed models showed that testosterone negatively predicted partnered desire in women but not men. Stress moderated associations between testosterone and solitary desire in both women and men, but differently: At lower levels of stress, higher average testosterone corresponded to higher average solitary desire for men, but lower solitary desire on average for women. Similarly, for partnered desire, higher perceived stress predicted lower desire for women, but higher desire for men. We conclude by discussing the ways that these results both counter presumptions about testosterone and desire but fit with the existing literature and theory, and highlight the empirical importance of stress and gender norms.
Many forms of implicit bias training are aimed at changing individuals’ implicit biases (treated as trait-like attributes of the person); but implicit bias may not be a stable attribute of individuals, but may better characterize social environments than people
Policy Insights From Advances in Implicit Bias Research. B. Keith Payne, Heidi A. Vuletich. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732217746190
Abstract: Implicit bias, which refers to mental associations that can lead to unintentional discrimination, has become a focus as many organizations and institutions try to reduce disparities and increase inclusiveness. Many forms of implicit bias training are aimed at changing individuals’ implicit biases. This approach treats implicit bias as a trait-like attribute of the person. Recent theoretical advances in understanding implicit bias, however, suggest that implicit bias may not be a stable attribute of individuals. Instead, implicit bias may better characterize social environments than people. Understanding implicit bias as a cultural phenomenon, rather than a fixed set of beliefs, has important policy implications. Most notably, the best approaches for reducing the harm of implicit bias should aim at changing social contexts rather than changing people’s minds. Here, we highlight some considerations of this new understanding of implicit bias for policy makers aiming to reduce disparities and increase inclusion.
Keywords: implicit bias, explicit prejudice, Bias of Crowds, discrimination, interventions
Abstract: Implicit bias, which refers to mental associations that can lead to unintentional discrimination, has become a focus as many organizations and institutions try to reduce disparities and increase inclusiveness. Many forms of implicit bias training are aimed at changing individuals’ implicit biases. This approach treats implicit bias as a trait-like attribute of the person. Recent theoretical advances in understanding implicit bias, however, suggest that implicit bias may not be a stable attribute of individuals. Instead, implicit bias may better characterize social environments than people. Understanding implicit bias as a cultural phenomenon, rather than a fixed set of beliefs, has important policy implications. Most notably, the best approaches for reducing the harm of implicit bias should aim at changing social contexts rather than changing people’s minds. Here, we highlight some considerations of this new understanding of implicit bias for policy makers aiming to reduce disparities and increase inclusion.
Keywords: implicit bias, explicit prejudice, Bias of Crowds, discrimination, interventions
In the spiritual condition, as compared with the neutral-relaxing condition, we see reduced activity in the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL), a result that suggests the IPL may contribute importantly to perceptual processing and self-other representations during spiritual experiences
Neural Correlates of Personalized Spiritual Experiences. Lisa Miller, Iris M Balodis, Clayton H McClintock, Jiansong Xu, Cheryl M Lacadie, Rajita Sinha, Marc N Potenza. Cerebral Cortex, bhy102, https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhy102
Abstract: Across cultures and throughout history, human beings have reported a variety of spiritual experiences and the concomitant perceived sense of union that transcends one’s ordinary sense of self. Nevertheless, little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms of spiritual experiences, particularly when examined across different traditions and practices. By adapting an individualized guided-imagery task, we investigated neural correlates of personally meaningful spiritual experiences as compared with stressful and neutral-relaxing experiences. We observed in the spiritual condition, as compared with the neutral-relaxing condition, reduced activity in the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL), a result that suggests the IPL may contribute importantly to perceptual processing and self-other representations during spiritual experiences. Compared with stress cues, responses to spiritual cues showed reduced activity in the medial thalamus and caudate, regions associated with sensory and emotional processing. Overall, the study introduces a novel method for investigating brain correlates of personally meaningful spiritual experiences and suggests neural mechanisms associated with broadly defined and personally experienced spirituality.
keywords: functional magnetic resonance imaging, perception, spirituality, stress
---
For the spiritual script, participants were given the following
instructions:
“We would like you to describe a situation in which you felt a strong connection with a higher power or a spiritual presence. Spiritual states are those that through a felt-sense connect you to something bigger than oneself, a oneness, or strong force which may be experienced as an energy, force, higher power, G-d, deity or transcendent figure or consciousness. Such states may be experienced in places of worship, at home, in your daily life, or outdoors in nature. Choose a personal lived situation that you directly experienced, whether others were present or not. Also, include in your description the bodily sensations you have experienced in these situations.
Some common experiences of transcendent connection include a two-way relationship with a higher power, a felt-sense of oneness in nature by the ocean or atop a mountain, being in a zone of intense physical activity (such as sports or yoga), sudden awareness, bodily felt connectivity or buoyancy, meditation or prayer. These may be extremely vivid or intense experiences, or these relatively accentuated experiences may filter into an ongoing felt transcendent connection or daily way of being connected to something more.
Sometimes it is difficult to think of a positive transcendent or spiritual experience “on the spot”. It may help to close your eyes and try to imagine yourself in the situation. While you are imagining the situation, try to generate the same sensations and feelings you would experience if you were actually in the situation. Describe the situation as though you are helping me see it as if I was there with you. (Please include such details as who was there; what you were doing; where you were; how things looked; what bodily sensations you experienced.)”
[...]
The present study showed reduced activity in the left IPL following spiritual cues, which is consistent with several previous investigations suggesting an inverse relationship between spiritual awareness and parietal activity. The posterior parietal cortex has been implicated in religiosity and spirituality across a wide variety of measures including importance of religion and spirituality (Miller et al. 2014), trait self-transcendence (Urgesi et al. 2010), implicit religiousness and spirituality (Crescentini et al. 2014, 2015), mindfulness meditation training (Lazar et al. 2000; Farb et al. 2007), and contemplative prayer (Newberg et al. 2003, 2015). Furthermore, activity in this region has been linked to spatiotemporal perceptual processes and, in particular, the representation of the human body in time and space (Assmus et al. 2003; Lou et al. 2004; Bolger et al. 2014). Since spiritual practices and experiences typically involve a perceived alteration in time and space (Newberg and Waldman 2009; Yaden et al. 2017), often an expanded sense of self in relation to the environment including subjective reports from the current study (see Supplementary Material), these findings lend support to our hypotheses and the relatively blunted activity of the IPL observed in the present study. The hemispheric lateralization of posterior parietal activation differs, however, across various studies of spirituality, which invites a more nuanced interpretation. Research has implicated the right IPL in the cognitive representation of one’s own body in space, while the left IPL has been linked to the visuo-spatial representation of others (Felician et al. 2003; Lou et al. 2004; Muhlau et al. 2005). Functionally connected to the ventral premotor cortex, the IPL contains both motor and mirror neurons which allow an observer to perceive individuals’ motor behaviors and intentions, and the left IPL in particular has been implicated in reading others’ intentions (Fogassi et al. 2005; D’Argembeau et al. 2008; Bonini et al. 2010). Moreover, research has linked the IPL to the attribution of agency, whereby left IPL activity may signal an attribution of agency outside of oneself (Farrer and Frith 2002). Taken together, the present finding suggests that spiritual experiences may involve a perceived encounter with a spacious “presence” or entity external to oneself. This interpretation is consistent with a strong feeling of connection or surrender to a deity or other revered figure, as often reported in religious and spiritual literature (James 1902; Wilber 2006).
The IPL has also been implicated in episodic memory retrieval as well as processing human faces (Leube et al. 2003; Mayes et al. 2004; Wagner et al. 2005), possibly suggesting that spiritual experiences interact with memory retrieval processes in a unique way. This possibility, however, is tempered by the fact that all three conditions involved re-experiencing highly salient memories, including those that may involve recollection of people (and thus their faces). As such, the experimental design argues against these possibilities. Nonetheless, future investigations involving larger samples may permit investigation of scripts with and without specific features (e.g., recollection of people or spiritual beings) to investigate such possibilities directly. Additionally, it is worth noting that the responses during the spiritual cue condition are congruent with the notion that systemsbased changes may occur on neural levels in response to changes in perception (Freiwald et al. 2016; Mazzarella et al. 2013).
Abstract: Across cultures and throughout history, human beings have reported a variety of spiritual experiences and the concomitant perceived sense of union that transcends one’s ordinary sense of self. Nevertheless, little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms of spiritual experiences, particularly when examined across different traditions and practices. By adapting an individualized guided-imagery task, we investigated neural correlates of personally meaningful spiritual experiences as compared with stressful and neutral-relaxing experiences. We observed in the spiritual condition, as compared with the neutral-relaxing condition, reduced activity in the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL), a result that suggests the IPL may contribute importantly to perceptual processing and self-other representations during spiritual experiences. Compared with stress cues, responses to spiritual cues showed reduced activity in the medial thalamus and caudate, regions associated with sensory and emotional processing. Overall, the study introduces a novel method for investigating brain correlates of personally meaningful spiritual experiences and suggests neural mechanisms associated with broadly defined and personally experienced spirituality.
keywords: functional magnetic resonance imaging, perception, spirituality, stress
---
For the spiritual script, participants were given the following
instructions:
“We would like you to describe a situation in which you felt a strong connection with a higher power or a spiritual presence. Spiritual states are those that through a felt-sense connect you to something bigger than oneself, a oneness, or strong force which may be experienced as an energy, force, higher power, G-d, deity or transcendent figure or consciousness. Such states may be experienced in places of worship, at home, in your daily life, or outdoors in nature. Choose a personal lived situation that you directly experienced, whether others were present or not. Also, include in your description the bodily sensations you have experienced in these situations.
Some common experiences of transcendent connection include a two-way relationship with a higher power, a felt-sense of oneness in nature by the ocean or atop a mountain, being in a zone of intense physical activity (such as sports or yoga), sudden awareness, bodily felt connectivity or buoyancy, meditation or prayer. These may be extremely vivid or intense experiences, or these relatively accentuated experiences may filter into an ongoing felt transcendent connection or daily way of being connected to something more.
Sometimes it is difficult to think of a positive transcendent or spiritual experience “on the spot”. It may help to close your eyes and try to imagine yourself in the situation. While you are imagining the situation, try to generate the same sensations and feelings you would experience if you were actually in the situation. Describe the situation as though you are helping me see it as if I was there with you. (Please include such details as who was there; what you were doing; where you were; how things looked; what bodily sensations you experienced.)”
[...]
The present study showed reduced activity in the left IPL following spiritual cues, which is consistent with several previous investigations suggesting an inverse relationship between spiritual awareness and parietal activity. The posterior parietal cortex has been implicated in religiosity and spirituality across a wide variety of measures including importance of religion and spirituality (Miller et al. 2014), trait self-transcendence (Urgesi et al. 2010), implicit religiousness and spirituality (Crescentini et al. 2014, 2015), mindfulness meditation training (Lazar et al. 2000; Farb et al. 2007), and contemplative prayer (Newberg et al. 2003, 2015). Furthermore, activity in this region has been linked to spatiotemporal perceptual processes and, in particular, the representation of the human body in time and space (Assmus et al. 2003; Lou et al. 2004; Bolger et al. 2014). Since spiritual practices and experiences typically involve a perceived alteration in time and space (Newberg and Waldman 2009; Yaden et al. 2017), often an expanded sense of self in relation to the environment including subjective reports from the current study (see Supplementary Material), these findings lend support to our hypotheses and the relatively blunted activity of the IPL observed in the present study. The hemispheric lateralization of posterior parietal activation differs, however, across various studies of spirituality, which invites a more nuanced interpretation. Research has implicated the right IPL in the cognitive representation of one’s own body in space, while the left IPL has been linked to the visuo-spatial representation of others (Felician et al. 2003; Lou et al. 2004; Muhlau et al. 2005). Functionally connected to the ventral premotor cortex, the IPL contains both motor and mirror neurons which allow an observer to perceive individuals’ motor behaviors and intentions, and the left IPL in particular has been implicated in reading others’ intentions (Fogassi et al. 2005; D’Argembeau et al. 2008; Bonini et al. 2010). Moreover, research has linked the IPL to the attribution of agency, whereby left IPL activity may signal an attribution of agency outside of oneself (Farrer and Frith 2002). Taken together, the present finding suggests that spiritual experiences may involve a perceived encounter with a spacious “presence” or entity external to oneself. This interpretation is consistent with a strong feeling of connection or surrender to a deity or other revered figure, as often reported in religious and spiritual literature (James 1902; Wilber 2006).
The IPL has also been implicated in episodic memory retrieval as well as processing human faces (Leube et al. 2003; Mayes et al. 2004; Wagner et al. 2005), possibly suggesting that spiritual experiences interact with memory retrieval processes in a unique way. This possibility, however, is tempered by the fact that all three conditions involved re-experiencing highly salient memories, including those that may involve recollection of people (and thus their faces). As such, the experimental design argues against these possibilities. Nonetheless, future investigations involving larger samples may permit investigation of scripts with and without specific features (e.g., recollection of people or spiritual beings) to investigate such possibilities directly. Additionally, it is worth noting that the responses during the spiritual cue condition are congruent with the notion that systemsbased changes may occur on neural levels in response to changes in perception (Freiwald et al. 2016; Mazzarella et al. 2013).
But with mobile phones, texting, and social media, cocaine users around the world reported that their most recent cocaine order was delivered in less time, on average, than their most recent pizza order
A primer on fentanyl(s). Mark Kleiman, May 24, 2018. www.samefacts.com/2018/05/drug-policy/a-primer-on-fentanyls/
The synthetic opioids – usually referred to both in the press and by law enforcement as “fentanyl” – have now outstripped not only the prescription opioids such as oxycodone but also heroin in terms of overdose deaths, and (as you can see below) the trend line is almost vertical.
[...]
But with mobile phones, texting, and social media, transactions can now be arranged electronically and completed by home delivery, reducing the buyer’s risk and travel time to near zero and even his waiting time to minimal levels. In the recent Global Survey on Drugs, cocaine users around the world reported that their most recent cocaine order was delivered in less time, on average, than their most recent pizza order.
[...]
The synthetic opioids – usually referred to both in the press and by law enforcement as “fentanyl” – have now outstripped not only the prescription opioids such as oxycodone but also heroin in terms of overdose deaths, and (as you can see below) the trend line is almost vertical.
[...]
But with mobile phones, texting, and social media, transactions can now be arranged electronically and completed by home delivery, reducing the buyer’s risk and travel time to near zero and even his waiting time to minimal levels. In the recent Global Survey on Drugs, cocaine users around the world reported that their most recent cocaine order was delivered in less time, on average, than their most recent pizza order.
[...]
Monday, May 28, 2018
We predicted that skeptics would have less favorable attitudes toward celebrities in general and feel less strongly attached to their own favorite celebrity, as compared to the believers; the first prediction was confirmed but not the second
Do Religious Skeptics Differ from Religious Believers in their Interest in Celebrities? Lynn E. McCutcheon and Harvey Richman. Implicit Religion, doi:10.1558/imre.29534. Keywords: religious, skeptics, celebrities, believers, stereotypes
Given the prejudice directed toward religious skeptics, it is imperative that we learn as much as we can about this minority group. We administered the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS), and some brief additional measures of attitudes about celebrities to a sample of 91 religious believers and 92 skeptics recruited throughout the US from Mechanical Turk. We predicted that skeptics would have less favorable attitudes toward celebrities in general and feel less strongly attached to their own favorite celebrity, as compared to the believers. The first prediction was confirmed but not the second. We also compared believers with skeptics on choices of an “entertainer” vs. “non-entertainer” favorite celebrity, and found no significant difference. The results are discussed in light of current research on religious skeptics and celebrity worshipers.
Given the prejudice directed toward religious skeptics, it is imperative that we learn as much as we can about this minority group. We administered the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS), and some brief additional measures of attitudes about celebrities to a sample of 91 religious believers and 92 skeptics recruited throughout the US from Mechanical Turk. We predicted that skeptics would have less favorable attitudes toward celebrities in general and feel less strongly attached to their own favorite celebrity, as compared to the believers. The first prediction was confirmed but not the second. We also compared believers with skeptics on choices of an “entertainer” vs. “non-entertainer” favorite celebrity, and found no significant difference. The results are discussed in light of current research on religious skeptics and celebrity worshipers.
Republicans and Democrats are equally likely to follow sports closely. However, sports fandom is positively associated with individualistic attributions for economic success and support for the US military
Sports Fandom and Political Attitudes. Emily A Thorson Michael Serazio. Public Opinion Quarterly, nfy018, https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfy018
Abstract: A majority of Americans identify as sports fans, and sports broadcasts attract substantially larger audiences than news on both broadcast and cable television. But despite the outsize role of sports in American life, we know little about how—or whether—sports fandom is related to political attitudes. This paper draws on a representative survey to examine (1) the association between sports fandom and political opinions; and (2) opposition to the “politicization” of sports. Republicans and Democrats are equally likely to follow sports closely. However, sports fandom is positively associated with individualistic attributions for economic success and support for the US military. In addition, conservatives are more likely to resist the intrusion of partisan politics into sports.
Abstract: A majority of Americans identify as sports fans, and sports broadcasts attract substantially larger audiences than news on both broadcast and cable television. But despite the outsize role of sports in American life, we know little about how—or whether—sports fandom is related to political attitudes. This paper draws on a representative survey to examine (1) the association between sports fandom and political opinions; and (2) opposition to the “politicization” of sports. Republicans and Democrats are equally likely to follow sports closely. However, sports fandom is positively associated with individualistic attributions for economic success and support for the US military. In addition, conservatives are more likely to resist the intrusion of partisan politics into sports.
The Cost of Being Sexy: The long quest to understand male sexual traits, testosterone, and immunocompetence
The Cost of Being Sexy. Lesley Evans Ogden. BioScience, Volume 68, Issue 6, 1 January 1753, Pages 393–399, https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biy043
The long quest to understand male sexual traits, testosterone, and immunocompetence
Cape ground squirrels have captured Jane Waterman's fascination for the last 30 years. “They’re so cool,” effuses Waterman. Studying them in South Africa, where these beguiling, furry mammals breed year round, she has revealed a treasure trove of surprises. Extremely social, females live in family groups with their young. Males disperse from their family group at about 3 years old, joining bachelor groups. In these all-male groups, males sleep together, groom one another, and move together through the veld. Males have no dominance hierarchy and defend no territories, and it is rare to see any sort of aggressive behavior, explains Waterman. But on the day when a female enters estrus, which lasts about 3 hours, an average of 11 males show up to try to breed. Winners in this mating game are typically older, in better body condition, and “well endowed” with big testes and more sperm, she says. Big testes, theory holds, are usually supported with an abundance of testosterone. But Waterman has not found their testosterone levels higher than those in a lot of other less-endowed species.
This intrigued her. It seemed to Waterman that to support big testes, males had to be able to keep testosterone going year round. In these squirrels, she also found more ectoparasites on males than on females—not only when males are wide-ranging adults but also when they are homebody juveniles. Her hunch was that an influx of testosterone drives a reduced male ability to fend off ectoparasites, espousing an idea known as the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis (ICHH). It is a hypothesis that she, with a graduate student, has recently tested experimentally.
Waterman's test of the ICHH follows on the heels of hundreds of studies since the idea was first articulated in The American Naturalist by Ivar Folstad and Andrew Karter in 1992. The ICHH proposes that elaborate male ornaments or signs of vigor are mediated at least in part by testosterone but that testosterone is costly in terms of compromising immune function. The ICHH is an influential hypothesis tracing its lineage back to Darwin's first musings about the tail of the peacock, the antlers of deer, and other exaggerated male traits that could attract the attention of females but might be costly for survival. For scientists who had long thought about sexual selection from a theoretical standpoint, here was a potential mechanism to explain it. The duality of testosterone—sexy but costly—suggested authors Folstad and Karter, provides a cue to choosy females as to which males cope with this burden best.
[...]
The long quest to understand male sexual traits, testosterone, and immunocompetence
Cape ground squirrels have captured Jane Waterman's fascination for the last 30 years. “They’re so cool,” effuses Waterman. Studying them in South Africa, where these beguiling, furry mammals breed year round, she has revealed a treasure trove of surprises. Extremely social, females live in family groups with their young. Males disperse from their family group at about 3 years old, joining bachelor groups. In these all-male groups, males sleep together, groom one another, and move together through the veld. Males have no dominance hierarchy and defend no territories, and it is rare to see any sort of aggressive behavior, explains Waterman. But on the day when a female enters estrus, which lasts about 3 hours, an average of 11 males show up to try to breed. Winners in this mating game are typically older, in better body condition, and “well endowed” with big testes and more sperm, she says. Big testes, theory holds, are usually supported with an abundance of testosterone. But Waterman has not found their testosterone levels higher than those in a lot of other less-endowed species.
This intrigued her. It seemed to Waterman that to support big testes, males had to be able to keep testosterone going year round. In these squirrels, she also found more ectoparasites on males than on females—not only when males are wide-ranging adults but also when they are homebody juveniles. Her hunch was that an influx of testosterone drives a reduced male ability to fend off ectoparasites, espousing an idea known as the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis (ICHH). It is a hypothesis that she, with a graduate student, has recently tested experimentally.
Waterman's test of the ICHH follows on the heels of hundreds of studies since the idea was first articulated in The American Naturalist by Ivar Folstad and Andrew Karter in 1992. The ICHH proposes that elaborate male ornaments or signs of vigor are mediated at least in part by testosterone but that testosterone is costly in terms of compromising immune function. The ICHH is an influential hypothesis tracing its lineage back to Darwin's first musings about the tail of the peacock, the antlers of deer, and other exaggerated male traits that could attract the attention of females but might be costly for survival. For scientists who had long thought about sexual selection from a theoretical standpoint, here was a potential mechanism to explain it. The duality of testosterone—sexy but costly—suggested authors Folstad and Karter, provides a cue to choosy females as to which males cope with this burden best.
[...]
There is a clear pattern of mobile phones being carried in people’s hands, without the person using it (that is, not looking at it); In addition, when individuals join members of the opposite sex there is a clear tendency to stop holding mobile phones whilst walking
The phone walkers: a study of human dependence on inactive mobile devices. Laura P. Schaposnik and James Unwin. Behaviour, DOI: 10.1163/1568539X-00003496
Abstract: The development of mobile phones has largely increased human interactions. Whilst the use of these devices for communication has received significant attention, there has been little analysis of more passive interactions. Through census data on casual social groups, this work suggests a clear pattern of mobile phones being carried in people’s hands, without the person using it (that is, not looking at it). Moreover, this study suggests that when individuals join members of the opposite sex there is a clear tendency to stop holding mobile phones whilst walking. Although it is not clear why people hold their phones whilst walking in such large proportions (38% of solitary women, and 31% of solitary men), we highlight several possible explanation for holding the device, including the need to advertise status and affluence, to maintain immediate connection with friends and family, and to mitigate feelings related to anxiety and security.
Keywords: gender; sex; pedestrians; inactive device usage; phone
Abstract: The development of mobile phones has largely increased human interactions. Whilst the use of these devices for communication has received significant attention, there has been little analysis of more passive interactions. Through census data on casual social groups, this work suggests a clear pattern of mobile phones being carried in people’s hands, without the person using it (that is, not looking at it). Moreover, this study suggests that when individuals join members of the opposite sex there is a clear tendency to stop holding mobile phones whilst walking. Although it is not clear why people hold their phones whilst walking in such large proportions (38% of solitary women, and 31% of solitary men), we highlight several possible explanation for holding the device, including the need to advertise status and affluence, to maintain immediate connection with friends and family, and to mitigate feelings related to anxiety and security.
Keywords: gender; sex; pedestrians; inactive device usage; phone
Ingestion of glucose leads to decreased activity & connectivity in brain areas & networks linked to energy seeking and satiation; in contrast, drinking plain water leads to increased connectivity probably associated with continued food seeking & unfulfilled reward
Brain activity and connectivity changes in response to glucose ingestion. A. M. van Opstal et al. Nutritional Neuroscience, https://doi.org/10.1080/1028415X.2018.1477538
Abstract
Objectives: The regulatory role of the brain in directing eating behavior becomes increasingly recognized. Although many areas in the brain have been found to respond to food cues, very little data is available after actual caloric intake. The aim of this study was to determine normal whole brain functional responses to ingestion of glucose after an overnight fast.
Methods: Twenty-five normal weight, adult males underwent functional MRI on two separate visits. In a single-blind randomized study setup, participants received either glucose solution (50 g/300 ml of water) or plain water. We studied changes in Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) signal, voxel-based connectivity by Eigenvector Centrality Mapping, and functional network connectivity.
Results: Ingestion of glucose led to increased centrality in the thalamus and to decreases in BOLD signal in various brain areas. Decreases in connectivity in the sensory-motor and dorsal visual stream networks were found. Ingestion of water resulted in increased centrality across the brain, and increases in connectivity in the medial and lateral visual cortex network. Increased BOLD intensity was found in the intracalcarine and cingulate cortex.
Discussion: Our data show that ingestion of glucose leads to decreased activity and connectivity in brain areas and networks linked to energy seeking and satiation. In contrast, drinking plain water leads to increased connectivity probably associated with continued food seeking and unfulfilled reward.
Keywords: Glucose ingestion, Energy ingestion, Functional brain responses, Brain activity, Functional connectivity, Eigenvector centrality mapping, Normal weight participants
Abstract
Objectives: The regulatory role of the brain in directing eating behavior becomes increasingly recognized. Although many areas in the brain have been found to respond to food cues, very little data is available after actual caloric intake. The aim of this study was to determine normal whole brain functional responses to ingestion of glucose after an overnight fast.
Methods: Twenty-five normal weight, adult males underwent functional MRI on two separate visits. In a single-blind randomized study setup, participants received either glucose solution (50 g/300 ml of water) or plain water. We studied changes in Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) signal, voxel-based connectivity by Eigenvector Centrality Mapping, and functional network connectivity.
Results: Ingestion of glucose led to increased centrality in the thalamus and to decreases in BOLD signal in various brain areas. Decreases in connectivity in the sensory-motor and dorsal visual stream networks were found. Ingestion of water resulted in increased centrality across the brain, and increases in connectivity in the medial and lateral visual cortex network. Increased BOLD intensity was found in the intracalcarine and cingulate cortex.
Discussion: Our data show that ingestion of glucose leads to decreased activity and connectivity in brain areas and networks linked to energy seeking and satiation. In contrast, drinking plain water leads to increased connectivity probably associated with continued food seeking and unfulfilled reward.
Keywords: Glucose ingestion, Energy ingestion, Functional brain responses, Brain activity, Functional connectivity, Eigenvector centrality mapping, Normal weight participants
Girls score higher than boys in mathematics and science achievement across non-OECD nations. An association was found between gender differences in science achievement and national levels of gender equality (support for the gender segregation hypothesis)
Investigating Gender Differences in Mathematics and Science: Results from the 2011 Trends in Mathematics and Science Survey. David Reilly, David L. Neumann, Glenda Andrews. Research in Science Education, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11165-017-9630-6
Abstract: The underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)-related fields remains a concern for educators and the scientific community. Gender differences in mathematics and science achievement play a role, in conjunction with attitudes and self-efficacy beliefs. We report results from the 2011 Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), a large international assessment of eighth grade students’ achievement, attitudes, and beliefs among 45 participating nations (N = 261,738). Small- to medium-sized gender differences were found for most individual nations (from d = −.60 to +.31 in mathematics achievement, and d = −.60 to +.26 for science achievement), although the direction varied and there were no global gender differences overall. Such a pattern cross-culturally is incompatible with the notion of immutable gender differences. Additionally, there were different patterns between OECD and non-OECD nations, with girls scoring higher than boys in mathematics and science achievement across non-OECD nations. An association was found between gender differences in science achievement and national levels of gender equality, providing support for the gender segregation hypothesis. Furthermore, the performance of boys was more variable than that of girls in most nations, consistent with the greater male variability hypothesis. Boys reported more favorable attitudes towards mathematics and science, and girls reported lower self-efficacy beliefs. While the gender gap in STEM achievement may be closing, there are still large sections of the world where differences remain.
Abstract: The underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)-related fields remains a concern for educators and the scientific community. Gender differences in mathematics and science achievement play a role, in conjunction with attitudes and self-efficacy beliefs. We report results from the 2011 Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), a large international assessment of eighth grade students’ achievement, attitudes, and beliefs among 45 participating nations (N = 261,738). Small- to medium-sized gender differences were found for most individual nations (from d = −.60 to +.31 in mathematics achievement, and d = −.60 to +.26 for science achievement), although the direction varied and there were no global gender differences overall. Such a pattern cross-culturally is incompatible with the notion of immutable gender differences. Additionally, there were different patterns between OECD and non-OECD nations, with girls scoring higher than boys in mathematics and science achievement across non-OECD nations. An association was found between gender differences in science achievement and national levels of gender equality, providing support for the gender segregation hypothesis. Furthermore, the performance of boys was more variable than that of girls in most nations, consistent with the greater male variability hypothesis. Boys reported more favorable attitudes towards mathematics and science, and girls reported lower self-efficacy beliefs. While the gender gap in STEM achievement may be closing, there are still large sections of the world where differences remain.
Those experiencing distrust (vs. trust) endorsed more lenient moral standards for themselves than for others: Individuals who distrust and fear to be exploited show self-serving, and hence untrustworthy, moral cognition themselves
Two-Faced Morality: Distrust Promotes Divergent Moral Standards for the Self Versus Others. Alexa Weiss, Pascal Burgmer, Thomas Mussweiler. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218775693
Abstract: People do not trust hypocrites, because they preach water, but drink wine. The current research shows that, ironically, when we distrust, we become moral hypocrites ourselves. We argue that experiencing distrust alerts us to the possibility that others may intent to exploit us, and that such looming exploitation differentially affects moral standards for the self versus others. Four studies (N = 1,225) examined this possibility and its underlying motivational dynamic. Study 1 established a relationship between dispositional distrust and flexible, self-serving moral cognition. In Studies 2 and 3, participants experiencing distrust (vs. trust) endorsed more lenient moral standards for themselves than for others. Study 4 explored the role of the motivation to avoid exploitation in these effects. Specifically, participants’ dispositional victim sensitivity moderated the effect of distrust on hypocrisy. Together, these findings suggest that individuals who distrust and fear to be exploited show self-serving, and hence untrustworthy, moral cognition themselves.
Keywords: distrust, trust, moral hypocrisy, moral judgment, exploitation avoidance, victim sensitivity
Abstract: People do not trust hypocrites, because they preach water, but drink wine. The current research shows that, ironically, when we distrust, we become moral hypocrites ourselves. We argue that experiencing distrust alerts us to the possibility that others may intent to exploit us, and that such looming exploitation differentially affects moral standards for the self versus others. Four studies (N = 1,225) examined this possibility and its underlying motivational dynamic. Study 1 established a relationship between dispositional distrust and flexible, self-serving moral cognition. In Studies 2 and 3, participants experiencing distrust (vs. trust) endorsed more lenient moral standards for themselves than for others. Study 4 explored the role of the motivation to avoid exploitation in these effects. Specifically, participants’ dispositional victim sensitivity moderated the effect of distrust on hypocrisy. Together, these findings suggest that individuals who distrust and fear to be exploited show self-serving, and hence untrustworthy, moral cognition themselves.
Keywords: distrust, trust, moral hypocrisy, moral judgment, exploitation avoidance, victim sensitivity
State mindfulness impaired motivation to complete cognitive and performance tasks, had no overall effect (good or bad) for performance; weakened future focus and arousal serially mediated demotivating effect, but also enabled people to detach from stressors, which improved task focus
Mindfulness Meditation Impairs Task Motivation but Not Performance. Andrew C. Hafenbrack, Kathleen D. Vohs. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Volume 147, July 2018, Pages 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2018.05.001
Highlights
• State mindfulness impaired motivation to complete cognitive and performance tasks.
• State mindfulness had no overall effect (good or bad) for performance on same tasks.
• Weakened future focus and arousal serially mediated demotivating effect.
• Mindfulness enabled people to detach from stressors, which improved task focus.
• Detachment and task focus help explain why mindfulness does not alter performance.
Abstract: A state of mindfulness is characterized by focused, nonjudgmental awareness of the present moment. The current research experimentally investigated how state mindfulness influences task motivation and performance, using multiple meditation inductions, comparison conditions, tasks, and participant samples. Mindfulness inductions, relative to comparison conditions, reduced motivation to tackle mundane tasks (Experiments 1–4) and pleasant tasks (Experiment 2). Decreased future focus and decreased arousal serially mediated the demotivating effect of mindfulness (Experiments 3 and 4). In contrast to changes in motivation, inducing a state of mindfulness did not affect task performance, as seen in all experiments but one (Experiments 2–5). Meta-analyses of performance experiments, including unreported findings (i.e., the file drawer), supported these conclusions. Experiment 5’s serial mediation showed that mindfulness enabled people to detach from stressors, which improved task focus. When combined with mindfulness’s demotivating effects, these results help explain why mindfulness does not alter performance.
Keywords: Mindfulness; Meditation; Motivation; Performance; Arousal; Psychological detachment
Highlights
• State mindfulness impaired motivation to complete cognitive and performance tasks.
• State mindfulness had no overall effect (good or bad) for performance on same tasks.
• Weakened future focus and arousal serially mediated demotivating effect.
• Mindfulness enabled people to detach from stressors, which improved task focus.
• Detachment and task focus help explain why mindfulness does not alter performance.
Abstract: A state of mindfulness is characterized by focused, nonjudgmental awareness of the present moment. The current research experimentally investigated how state mindfulness influences task motivation and performance, using multiple meditation inductions, comparison conditions, tasks, and participant samples. Mindfulness inductions, relative to comparison conditions, reduced motivation to tackle mundane tasks (Experiments 1–4) and pleasant tasks (Experiment 2). Decreased future focus and decreased arousal serially mediated the demotivating effect of mindfulness (Experiments 3 and 4). In contrast to changes in motivation, inducing a state of mindfulness did not affect task performance, as seen in all experiments but one (Experiments 2–5). Meta-analyses of performance experiments, including unreported findings (i.e., the file drawer), supported these conclusions. Experiment 5’s serial mediation showed that mindfulness enabled people to detach from stressors, which improved task focus. When combined with mindfulness’s demotivating effects, these results help explain why mindfulness does not alter performance.
Keywords: Mindfulness; Meditation; Motivation; Performance; Arousal; Psychological detachment
Sunday, May 27, 2018
A brief lesson that includes the assumptions of self-interest and strategic considerations moves behavior toward traditional economic rationality in ultimatum game, dictator game, and prisoner's dilemma
The Rapid Evolution of Homo Economicus: Brief Exposure to Neoclassical Assumptions Increases Self-Interested Behavior. John Ifcher, Homa Zarghamee. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2018.04.012
Highlights
• Laboratory experiment using within & across-subject design
• Identify impact of econ lessons on behavior in games used to measure selfishness
• Econ lessons include assumption of self-interest and strategic considerations
• Behav moves toward self-interest in ultimatum & dictator games & prisoner's dilemma
• No effect in public-goods games
Abstract: Economics students have been shown to exhibit more selfishness than other students. Because the literature identifies the impact of long-term exposure to economics instruction (e.g., taking a course), it cannot isolate the specific course content responsible; nor can selection, peer effects, or other confounds be properly controlled for. In a laboratory experiment, we use a within- and across-subject design to identify the impact of brief, randomly-assigned economics lessons on behavior in the ultimatum game (UG), dictator game (DG), prisoner's dilemma (PD), and public-goods game (PGG). We find that a brief lesson that includes the assumptions of self-interest and strategic considerations moves behavior toward traditional economic rationality in UG, PD, and DG. Despite entering the study with higher levels of selfishness than others, subjects with prior exposure to economics instruction have similar training effects. We show that the lesson reduces efficiency and increases inequity in the UG. The results demonstrate that even brief exposure to commonplace neoclassical economics assumptions measurably moves behavior toward self-interest.
Keywords: Economics instruction; Self-interest; Game theory; Laboratory experiment; Social preferences
Highlights
• Laboratory experiment using within & across-subject design
• Identify impact of econ lessons on behavior in games used to measure selfishness
• Econ lessons include assumption of self-interest and strategic considerations
• Behav moves toward self-interest in ultimatum & dictator games & prisoner's dilemma
• No effect in public-goods games
Abstract: Economics students have been shown to exhibit more selfishness than other students. Because the literature identifies the impact of long-term exposure to economics instruction (e.g., taking a course), it cannot isolate the specific course content responsible; nor can selection, peer effects, or other confounds be properly controlled for. In a laboratory experiment, we use a within- and across-subject design to identify the impact of brief, randomly-assigned economics lessons on behavior in the ultimatum game (UG), dictator game (DG), prisoner's dilemma (PD), and public-goods game (PGG). We find that a brief lesson that includes the assumptions of self-interest and strategic considerations moves behavior toward traditional economic rationality in UG, PD, and DG. Despite entering the study with higher levels of selfishness than others, subjects with prior exposure to economics instruction have similar training effects. We show that the lesson reduces efficiency and increases inequity in the UG. The results demonstrate that even brief exposure to commonplace neoclassical economics assumptions measurably moves behavior toward self-interest.
Keywords: Economics instruction; Self-interest; Game theory; Laboratory experiment; Social preferences
Saturday, May 26, 2018
Evidence of a Flynn Effect in Children's Human Figure Drawings (1902–1968)
Evidence of a Flynn Effect in Children's Human Figure Drawings (1902–1968). Jeremy E. C. Genovese. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2018.1469113
ABSTRACT: The Flynn effect is the long-term trend for scores on tests of cognitive ability to increase across cohorts. Several samples of children's human figure drawings, published in 1902, 1926, 1963, and 1968, are examined for evidence of a Flynn effect. Results show that larger percentages of children draw more complete human figures over the course of the 20th century.
KEYWORDS: children's drawings, Draw-a-Person test, Flynn effect, history of Psychology
ABSTRACT: The Flynn effect is the long-term trend for scores on tests of cognitive ability to increase across cohorts. Several samples of children's human figure drawings, published in 1902, 1926, 1963, and 1968, are examined for evidence of a Flynn effect. Results show that larger percentages of children draw more complete human figures over the course of the 20th century.
KEYWORDS: children's drawings, Draw-a-Person test, Flynn effect, history of Psychology
Stone-age strategies, space-age media & signaling in profile photos: Males emphasized social status, ambition & access to material resources, females physical appearance & youthfulness. Perception of masculinity was tied to display of resources & physical strength, femininity to physical appearance & flirtatious behavior
Stone-age strategies and space-age media: Sex differences in sexual signaling on Facebook. Igor Miklousic, Mia Karabegović, Lukrecija Puljić. Periodicum Biologorum, Vol 119 No 4 (2017). DOI: https://doi.org/10.18054/pb.v119i4.5787
Abstract: Building on the proposition of the Sexual Strategies Theory that sex differences in mating strategies and intrasexual competition will be reflected in sexual signaling behavior towards possible mates, we sought to examine if such strategies would be observable on social networking sites.
For the purpose of the study, ten male and ten female public profile pictures were randomly selected from a large pool of users (N = 1386) who chose to participate in the study and subscribed to a Facebook page created in order to aggregate users with an interest in Evolutionary psychology. Selected profile photos were then included in an online evaluation protocol, filled out by 31 independent raters, resulting in a total of 620 ratings. The protocol addressed nine evolutionarily relevant partner choice characteristics; 1) physical strength or athleticism, (2) access to resources or material possessions, (3) ambition or industriousness, (4) social status, (5) intelligence, (6) features of physical appearance, (7) features accentuating youthfulness, (8) high activity level, and (9) flirtatious behavior.
Males more frequently emphasized cues of social status, ambition and access to material resources, whereas females tended to emphasize features of physical appearance and of youthfulness. Furthermore, the perception of masculinity was mostly tied to the display of resources and physical strength, as was femininity to physical appearance and flirtatious behavior.
The Sexual Strategies Theory predictions of mating display behaviors were confirmed in online settings, demonstrating the robustness of sex differences in mating-related behaviors.
Abstract: Building on the proposition of the Sexual Strategies Theory that sex differences in mating strategies and intrasexual competition will be reflected in sexual signaling behavior towards possible mates, we sought to examine if such strategies would be observable on social networking sites.
For the purpose of the study, ten male and ten female public profile pictures were randomly selected from a large pool of users (N = 1386) who chose to participate in the study and subscribed to a Facebook page created in order to aggregate users with an interest in Evolutionary psychology. Selected profile photos were then included in an online evaluation protocol, filled out by 31 independent raters, resulting in a total of 620 ratings. The protocol addressed nine evolutionarily relevant partner choice characteristics; 1) physical strength or athleticism, (2) access to resources or material possessions, (3) ambition or industriousness, (4) social status, (5) intelligence, (6) features of physical appearance, (7) features accentuating youthfulness, (8) high activity level, and (9) flirtatious behavior.
Males more frequently emphasized cues of social status, ambition and access to material resources, whereas females tended to emphasize features of physical appearance and of youthfulness. Furthermore, the perception of masculinity was mostly tied to the display of resources and physical strength, as was femininity to physical appearance and flirtatious behavior.
The Sexual Strategies Theory predictions of mating display behaviors were confirmed in online settings, demonstrating the robustness of sex differences in mating-related behaviors.
Temptation & self-selection into an opportunistic environment on an individual’s likelihood of engaging in dishonest behavior: people who tempt themselves to cheat are more likely to cheat & in greater magnitude. Self-reported value of ethics predicts honest behavior only for subjects who consider their moral principles to be “very important” in their everyday lives
Temptation and Cheating Behavior: Experimental Evidence. Jennifer Pate. Journal of Economic Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2018.05.006
Highlights
• This study features an experiment testing the impact of temptation and self-selection into an opportunistic environment on an individual’s likelihood of engaging in dishonest behavior.
• The empirical evidence demonstrates that people who tempt themselves to cheat are more likely to cheat.
• Further, people who self-select into the opportunistic setting cheat to a greater magnitude than individuals placed into the same opportunistic condition by random assignment.
• There are no gender differences in self-selection into the opportunistic environment or in overall likelihood of cheating.
• An individual’s self-reported value of ethics predicts honest behavior but only for subjects who consider their moral principles to be “very important” in their everyday lives.
Abstract: This article presents an experiment designed to test the impact of temptation and self-selection into an opportunistic environment on an individual’s likelihood of engaging in dishonest behavior. In doing so, this experiment is the first of its kind to isolate the relationship between temptation and cheating as its primary focus, to create a randomized control group for comparative purposes, and to be conducted without deceiving subjects. The evidence shows that people who tempt themselves to cheat are more likely to cheat. Further, people who self-select into the opportunistic setting cheat to a greater extent than individuals placed into the same opportunistic condition by random assignment. There are no gender differences in choice of environment or likelihood of cheating. An individual’s self-reported value of ethics predicts honest behavior but only for subjects who consider their moral principles to be “very important” in their everyday lives. The results have direct implications for any environment where individuals can self-select into an opportunistic setting.
Keywords: Temptation; cheating; dishonesty; opportunism
Highlights
• This study features an experiment testing the impact of temptation and self-selection into an opportunistic environment on an individual’s likelihood of engaging in dishonest behavior.
• The empirical evidence demonstrates that people who tempt themselves to cheat are more likely to cheat.
• Further, people who self-select into the opportunistic setting cheat to a greater magnitude than individuals placed into the same opportunistic condition by random assignment.
• There are no gender differences in self-selection into the opportunistic environment or in overall likelihood of cheating.
• An individual’s self-reported value of ethics predicts honest behavior but only for subjects who consider their moral principles to be “very important” in their everyday lives.
Abstract: This article presents an experiment designed to test the impact of temptation and self-selection into an opportunistic environment on an individual’s likelihood of engaging in dishonest behavior. In doing so, this experiment is the first of its kind to isolate the relationship between temptation and cheating as its primary focus, to create a randomized control group for comparative purposes, and to be conducted without deceiving subjects. The evidence shows that people who tempt themselves to cheat are more likely to cheat. Further, people who self-select into the opportunistic setting cheat to a greater extent than individuals placed into the same opportunistic condition by random assignment. There are no gender differences in choice of environment or likelihood of cheating. An individual’s self-reported value of ethics predicts honest behavior but only for subjects who consider their moral principles to be “very important” in their everyday lives. The results have direct implications for any environment where individuals can self-select into an opportunistic setting.
Keywords: Temptation; cheating; dishonesty; opportunism
For men, psychopathy was a negative predictor, and narcissism a positive predictor of lifetime offspring; for women, psychopathy emerged as a negative predictor of lifetime offspring
Lifetime offspring and the Dark Triad. Gregory L. Carter, Minna Lyons, Gayle Brewer. Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 132, 1 October 2018, Pages 79–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.05.017
Abstract: There is a paucity of literature investigating the extent to which human personality predicts lifetime (age-controlled) offspring. The present study contributes to this field in assessing whether the inter-related ‘dark’ personalities that have been linked to mating success (i.e., narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy: the ‘Dark Triad’) predict number of children. Analyses from an online sample (N = 314) revealed that for men, psychopathy was a negative predictor, and narcissism a positive predictor of lifetime offspring. For women, psychopathy emerged as a negative predictor of lifetime offspring. Results are discussed in respect of the importance of these traits to fitness-related outcomes, including reproduction, and the need to consider sex differences, as these traits may have a different function in men and women.
Keywords: Reproduction; Dark Triad; Narcissism; Machiavellianism; Psychopathy
Abstract: There is a paucity of literature investigating the extent to which human personality predicts lifetime (age-controlled) offspring. The present study contributes to this field in assessing whether the inter-related ‘dark’ personalities that have been linked to mating success (i.e., narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy: the ‘Dark Triad’) predict number of children. Analyses from an online sample (N = 314) revealed that for men, psychopathy was a negative predictor, and narcissism a positive predictor of lifetime offspring. For women, psychopathy emerged as a negative predictor of lifetime offspring. Results are discussed in respect of the importance of these traits to fitness-related outcomes, including reproduction, and the need to consider sex differences, as these traits may have a different function in men and women.
Keywords: Reproduction; Dark Triad; Narcissism; Machiavellianism; Psychopathy
Low (high) skill subjects are more (less) willing to take risks on gambles where the probabilities depend on relative skill. This suggests that the wrong people may engage in risky activities, such as entering competitive markets or career paths, while the right people may be crowded out
How do beliefs about skill affect risky decisions? Adrian Bruhin, Luís Santos-Pinto, David Staubli. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Volume 150, June 2018, Pages 350-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2018.01.016
Highlights
• In this paper, we use a laboratory experiment to study the causal effect of beliefs about skill on risky choices.
• The paper offers an innovative experimental test that is free of strategic confounds and based on revealed preference.
• Low (high) skill subjects are more (less) willing to take risks on gambles where the probabilities depend on relative skill.
• This suggests that the wrong people may engage in risky activities V such as entering competitive markets or career paths V while the right people may be crowded out.
• Revealed beliefs are only moderately correlated with stated beliefs and so relying only on stated beliefs may be misleading.
Abstract: Beliefs about relative skill matter for risky decisions such as market entry, career choices, and financial investments. Yet in most laboratory experiments risk is exogenously given and beliefs about relative skill play no role. We use a laboratory experiment without strategy confounds to isolate the impact of beliefs about relative skill on risky choices. We find that low (high) skill individuals are more (less) willing to take risks on gambles where the probabilities depend on relative skill than on gambles with exogenously given probabilities. This happens because low (high) skill individuals overestimate (underestimate) their relative skill. Consequently, the wrong people may engage in risky activities where performance is based on relative skill while the right people may be crowded out.
Highlights
• In this paper, we use a laboratory experiment to study the causal effect of beliefs about skill on risky choices.
• The paper offers an innovative experimental test that is free of strategic confounds and based on revealed preference.
• Low (high) skill subjects are more (less) willing to take risks on gambles where the probabilities depend on relative skill.
• This suggests that the wrong people may engage in risky activities V such as entering competitive markets or career paths V while the right people may be crowded out.
• Revealed beliefs are only moderately correlated with stated beliefs and so relying only on stated beliefs may be misleading.
Abstract: Beliefs about relative skill matter for risky decisions such as market entry, career choices, and financial investments. Yet in most laboratory experiments risk is exogenously given and beliefs about relative skill play no role. We use a laboratory experiment without strategy confounds to isolate the impact of beliefs about relative skill on risky choices. We find that low (high) skill individuals are more (less) willing to take risks on gambles where the probabilities depend on relative skill than on gambles with exogenously given probabilities. This happens because low (high) skill individuals overestimate (underestimate) their relative skill. Consequently, the wrong people may engage in risky activities where performance is based on relative skill while the right people may be crowded out.
We look at more information, pay more for information, look at different information when choosing for others; those who choose for others focus more on choice-alternatives, and when choosing for themselves focus more on choice-attributes
Choosing for others and its relation to information search, Yi Liu et al. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Volume 147, July 2018, Pages 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2018.05.005
Highlights
• We show that people look at more information when choosing for others.
• We show that people will pay more for information when choosing for others.
• We show that people will look at different information when choosing for others.
• People who choose for others focus more on choice-alternatives.
• People who choose for themselves focus more on choice-attributes.
Abstract: When people make choices, they both identify their options and research the unique details that comprise their options. Respectively, these two search behaviors are called alternative- and attribute-search. The literature treats these separate information search behaviors as a trade-off: Choosing to examine extant alternatives (alternative-search) means suffering the costs of not analyzing the details of alternatives (attribute-search), and vice versa. Here, we found that in choices people make for others, they search for more alternatives and more attributes than in choices people make for themselves. Moreover, we found that when people face a trade-off between searching for alternatives and attributes, people choosing for others will favor alternatives, whereas people choosing for themselves will favor attributes. Thus, we found that the pursuit of information is different when people choose for others (vs. themselves), suggesting a novel pivot to a range of areas in decision making where the alternative-attribute trade-off is ubiquitous.
Keywords: Self-other decision making; Information search; Regulatory focus; Social distance
Highlights
• We show that people look at more information when choosing for others.
• We show that people will pay more for information when choosing for others.
• We show that people will look at different information when choosing for others.
• People who choose for others focus more on choice-alternatives.
• People who choose for themselves focus more on choice-attributes.
Abstract: When people make choices, they both identify their options and research the unique details that comprise their options. Respectively, these two search behaviors are called alternative- and attribute-search. The literature treats these separate information search behaviors as a trade-off: Choosing to examine extant alternatives (alternative-search) means suffering the costs of not analyzing the details of alternatives (attribute-search), and vice versa. Here, we found that in choices people make for others, they search for more alternatives and more attributes than in choices people make for themselves. Moreover, we found that when people face a trade-off between searching for alternatives and attributes, people choosing for others will favor alternatives, whereas people choosing for themselves will favor attributes. Thus, we found that the pursuit of information is different when people choose for others (vs. themselves), suggesting a novel pivot to a range of areas in decision making where the alternative-attribute trade-off is ubiquitous.
Keywords: Self-other decision making; Information search; Regulatory focus; Social distance
Friday, May 25, 2018
Knowing about others’ political views interferes with the ability to learn about their competency in unrelated tasks, leading to suboptimal information-seeking decisions and errors in judgement
Marks, Joseph and Copland, Eloise and Loh, Eleanor and Sunstein, Cass R. and Sharot, Tali, Epistemic Spillovers: Learning Others’ Political Views Reduces the Ability to Assess and Use Their Expertise in Nonpolitical Domains (April 13, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3162009
Abstract: On political questions, many people are especially likely to consult and learn from those whose political views are similar to their own, thus creating a risk of echo chambers or information cocoons. Here, we test whether the tendency to prefer knowledge from the politically like-minded generalizes to domains that have nothing to do with politics, even when evidence indicates that person is less skilled in that domain than someone with dissimilar political views. Participants had multiple opportunities to learn about others’ (1) political opinions and (2) ability to categorize geometric shapes. They then decided to whom to turn for advice when solving an incentivized shape categorization task. We find that participants falsely concluded that politically like-minded others were better at categorizing shapes and thus chose to hear from them. Participants were also more influenced by politically like-minded others, even when they had good reason not to be. The results demonstrate that knowing about others’ political views interferes with the ability to learn about their competency in unrelated tasks, leading to suboptimal information-seeking decisions and errors in judgement. Our findings have implications for political polarization and social learning in the midst of political divisions.
Check also
Abstract: On political questions, many people are especially likely to consult and learn from those whose political views are similar to their own, thus creating a risk of echo chambers or information cocoons. Here, we test whether the tendency to prefer knowledge from the politically like-minded generalizes to domains that have nothing to do with politics, even when evidence indicates that person is less skilled in that domain than someone with dissimilar political views. Participants had multiple opportunities to learn about others’ (1) political opinions and (2) ability to categorize geometric shapes. They then decided to whom to turn for advice when solving an incentivized shape categorization task. We find that participants falsely concluded that politically like-minded others were better at categorizing shapes and thus chose to hear from them. Participants were also more influenced by politically like-minded others, even when they had good reason not to be. The results demonstrate that knowing about others’ political views interferes with the ability to learn about their competency in unrelated tasks, leading to suboptimal information-seeking decisions and errors in judgement. Our findings have implications for political polarization and social learning in the midst of political divisions.
Check also
When the tables are turned: The effects of the 2016 U.S. Presidential election on in-group favoritism and out-group hostility. Burak Oc, Celia Moore, Michael R. Bashshur. PLOS, May 24, 2018, https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2018/05/before-2016-election-republicans-showed.html
Smartphone-tracking data & precinct-level voting data show that politically-divided families shortened Thanksgiving dinners by 20-30 minutes following the 2016 election:M. Keith Chen and Ryne Rohla. “Politics Gets Personal: Effects of Political Partisanship and Advertising on Family Ties.” 2017 (Under Review). https://www.bipartisanalliance.com/2017/11/smartphone-tracking-data-precinct-level.html
Experiential or Material Purchases? Social Class Determines Purchase Happiness. Individuals of higher social class, whose abundant resources make it possible to focus on self-development and self-expression, were made happier by experiential over material purchase
Experiential or Material Purchases? Social Class Determines Purchase Happiness. Jacob C. Lee, Deborah L. Hall, Wendy Wood. Psychological Science, https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617736386
Abstract: Which should people buy to make themselves happy: experiences or material goods? The answer depends in part on the level of resources already available in their lives. Across multiple studies using a range of methodologies, we found that individuals of higher social class, whose abundant resources make it possible to focus on self-development and self-expression, were made happier by experiential over material purchases. No such experiential advantage emerged for individuals of lower social class, whose lesser resources engender concern with resource management and wise use of limited finances. Instead, lower-class individuals were made happier from material purchases or were equally happy from experiential and material purchases.
Keywords: social class, happiness, experiential purchases, material purchases, socioeconomic status, open data, open materials, preregistered
Abstract: Which should people buy to make themselves happy: experiences or material goods? The answer depends in part on the level of resources already available in their lives. Across multiple studies using a range of methodologies, we found that individuals of higher social class, whose abundant resources make it possible to focus on self-development and self-expression, were made happier by experiential over material purchases. No such experiential advantage emerged for individuals of lower social class, whose lesser resources engender concern with resource management and wise use of limited finances. Instead, lower-class individuals were made happier from material purchases or were equally happy from experiential and material purchases.
Keywords: social class, happiness, experiential purchases, material purchases, socioeconomic status, open data, open materials, preregistered
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