Is there a gender gap? A meta-analysis of the gender differences in students' ICT literacy. Fazilat Siddiq, Ronny Scherer. Educational Research Review, Volume 27, June 2019, Pages 205-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.03.007
Highlights
• Girls perform better than boys on performance-based ICT literacy assessments.
• Gender differences are larger in primary schools than in secondary schools.
• The overall effect size is robust across several analysis conditions.
• No evidence of publication bias could be found.
• Overall, the gender differences in ICT literacy are significant but small.
Abstract: The study of gender differences in academic achievement has been one of the core topics in education, especially because it may uncover possible gaps and inequalities in certain domains. Whereas these differences have largely been examined in traditional domains, such as mathematics, reading, and science, the existing body of empirical studies in the domain of ICT literacy is considerably smaller, yet abounds in diverse findings. One of the persistent findings however is that boys consider their ICT literacy to be higher than that of girls. This meta-analysis tests whether the same pattern holds for students’ actual performance on ICT literacy tasks, as measured by performance-based assessments. In total, 46 effect sizes were extracted from 23 empirical studies using a random-effects model. Overall, the gender differences in ICT literacy were significant, positive, and favored girls (g = + 0.12, 95 % CI = [0.08, 0.16]). This effect varied between studies, and moderation analyses indicated that the grade level students were taught at moderated its magnitude—effect sizes were larger in primary school as compared to secondary school. In conclusion, our findings contrast those obtained from previous meta-analyses that were based on self-reported ICT literacy and suggest that the ICT gender gap may not be as severe as it had been claimed to be.
Thursday, June 6, 2019
The Puzzle of Open Defecation in Rural India: Evidence from a Novel Measure of Caste Attitudes in a Nationally Representative Survey
The Puzzle of Open Defecation in Rural India: Evidence from a Novel Measure of Caste Attitudes in a Nationally Representative Survey. Dean Spears. Economic Development and Cultural Change, May 30, 2019. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/698852
Abstract: Uniquely widespread and persistent open defecation in rural India has emerged as an important policy challenge and puzzle about behavioral choice in economic development. One candidate explanation is the culture of purity and pollution that reinforces and has its origins in the caste system. Although such a cultural account is inherently difficult to quantitatively test, we provide support for this explanation by comparing open defecation rates across places in India where untouchability is more and less intensely practiced. In particular, we exploit a novel question in the 2012 India Human Development Survey that asked households whether they practice untouchability, meaning whether they enforce norms of purity and pollution in their interactions with lower castes. We find an association between local practice of untouchability and open defecation that is robust; is not explained by economic, educational, or other observable differences; and is specific to open defecation rather than other health behavior or human capital investments more generally. We verify that practicing untouchability is not associated with general disadvantage in health knowledge or access to medical professionals. We interpret this as evidence that the culture of purity, pollution, untouchability, and caste contributes to the exceptional prevalence of open defecation in rural India.
Abstract: Uniquely widespread and persistent open defecation in rural India has emerged as an important policy challenge and puzzle about behavioral choice in economic development. One candidate explanation is the culture of purity and pollution that reinforces and has its origins in the caste system. Although such a cultural account is inherently difficult to quantitatively test, we provide support for this explanation by comparing open defecation rates across places in India where untouchability is more and less intensely practiced. In particular, we exploit a novel question in the 2012 India Human Development Survey that asked households whether they practice untouchability, meaning whether they enforce norms of purity and pollution in their interactions with lower castes. We find an association between local practice of untouchability and open defecation that is robust; is not explained by economic, educational, or other observable differences; and is specific to open defecation rather than other health behavior or human capital investments more generally. We verify that practicing untouchability is not associated with general disadvantage in health knowledge or access to medical professionals. We interpret this as evidence that the culture of purity, pollution, untouchability, and caste contributes to the exceptional prevalence of open defecation in rural India.
Wednesday, June 5, 2019
Having more children is associated with less concern for climate change for women (but not men); overall, we refute the eco-mom theory and call for new climate change survey data that better capture gender roles and identity
Price, Carmel E., and Stephanie Bohon. 2019. “Eco-moms and Climate Change: The Moderating Effects of Fertility in Explaining Gender Differences in Concern.” SocArXiv. June 5. doi:10.1177/232949651985269
Abstract: Women typically report greater concern for the environment, including climate change, than men. The eco-mom theory—the belief that women have greater environmental concern than men because mothers primarily care about the health and safety of their children, while fathers primarily care about the economic support of their household—is often proffered as an explanation for this difference. Researchers who have previously tested the eco-mom theory have narrowly operationalized parenthood; we are skeptical of this theory and believe it needs additional testing. We look at fertility in relation to concern for climate change using the 2010 General Social Survey. Modeling parenthood like previous studies, we find no differences in concern for climate change between women who have children and those who do not. Modeling fertility, we find that having more children is associated with less concern for climate change for women but not men. Additionally, we find no gender difference in concern for climate change for those with many children, but these findings are complicated by education. Overall, we refute the eco-mom theory and call for new climate change survey data that better capture gender roles and identity as well as more qualitative inquiries into public concern for climate change.
Abstract: Women typically report greater concern for the environment, including climate change, than men. The eco-mom theory—the belief that women have greater environmental concern than men because mothers primarily care about the health and safety of their children, while fathers primarily care about the economic support of their household—is often proffered as an explanation for this difference. Researchers who have previously tested the eco-mom theory have narrowly operationalized parenthood; we are skeptical of this theory and believe it needs additional testing. We look at fertility in relation to concern for climate change using the 2010 General Social Survey. Modeling parenthood like previous studies, we find no differences in concern for climate change between women who have children and those who do not. Modeling fertility, we find that having more children is associated with less concern for climate change for women but not men. Additionally, we find no gender difference in concern for climate change for those with many children, but these findings are complicated by education. Overall, we refute the eco-mom theory and call for new climate change survey data that better capture gender roles and identity as well as more qualitative inquiries into public concern for climate change.
Rolf Degen summarizing: Psychological research on bystander apathy - prompted by false reporting - had promoted an unduly pessimistic view of human nature, refuted by new data
Liebst, Lasse S., Richard Philpot, Marie B. Heinskou, and Marie R. Lindegaard. 2019. “Bystander Intervention in Street Violence: Current Evidence and Implications for Practice.” SocArXiv. March 22. doi:10.31235/osf.io/7m9u
Abstract: In street violence, bystanders are a potential resource for crime prevention, as they tend to be present when the police are absent. This paper describes evidence of bystanders taking an active role in the prevention of violence and considers implications for crime prevention initiatives.
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Recently, however, this apathetic view of bystanders has been challenged. In a meta-analytical synthesis of the experimentally-based bystander effect research field, Fischer et al. (2011) showed that the bystander effect does not generalize to dangerous emergencies. When comparing bystander helping in low versus high danger conditions, they found that the bystander effect attenuated, or even reversed, in simulations of high-danger. This suggests that bystanders intervene when it really matters, and that the presence of others does not diffuse the responsibility for helping. Rather, in dangerous situations, additional bystanders may offer a welcome support that increases the likelihood of helping. This latter ‘reversed bystander effect’ is meaningful from the standpoint of the intervener: “I can intervene because there are others to help me if this dangerous situation gets out of hand.”
Fischer and colleagues have since verified the existence of the reversed bystander effect in field experiments simulating aggressive emergencies (Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2013). Adding to this, recent reassessments of the Kitty Genovese case document that several bystanders did in fact do something to help, as expected under the reversed bystander effect hypothesis (Manning et al., 2007). Taken together, this leaves us, both at the meta-analytical and anecdotal level of knowledge, with a more optimistic and agential view of bystanders.
These recent findings not only reframe the role of bystanders within the psychological literature, but are also of importance for the parallel criminological work that conceptualizes bystanders as ‘guardians’ (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Here, it is argued that the mere presence of bystanders has a crime preventive effect, with bystander presence making it more difficult and risky from the perspective of the offender to commit a crime. Although this situational approach is effective in deterring ‘cold-headed’ crimes, (e.g., robberies, burglaries, petty theft), it may be less effective against ‘hot-headed’ crimes, such as street violent assaults (Hayward, 2007). Moving beyond a mere focus on bystander presence as a deterrent to crime, in this paper, we suggest that bystander actions may offer new avenues for behavior-based crime prevention initiatives.
Abstract: In street violence, bystanders are a potential resource for crime prevention, as they tend to be present when the police are absent. This paper describes evidence of bystanders taking an active role in the prevention of violence and considers implications for crime prevention initiatives.
---
Recently, however, this apathetic view of bystanders has been challenged. In a meta-analytical synthesis of the experimentally-based bystander effect research field, Fischer et al. (2011) showed that the bystander effect does not generalize to dangerous emergencies. When comparing bystander helping in low versus high danger conditions, they found that the bystander effect attenuated, or even reversed, in simulations of high-danger. This suggests that bystanders intervene when it really matters, and that the presence of others does not diffuse the responsibility for helping. Rather, in dangerous situations, additional bystanders may offer a welcome support that increases the likelihood of helping. This latter ‘reversed bystander effect’ is meaningful from the standpoint of the intervener: “I can intervene because there are others to help me if this dangerous situation gets out of hand.”
Fischer and colleagues have since verified the existence of the reversed bystander effect in field experiments simulating aggressive emergencies (Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2013). Adding to this, recent reassessments of the Kitty Genovese case document that several bystanders did in fact do something to help, as expected under the reversed bystander effect hypothesis (Manning et al., 2007). Taken together, this leaves us, both at the meta-analytical and anecdotal level of knowledge, with a more optimistic and agential view of bystanders.
These recent findings not only reframe the role of bystanders within the psychological literature, but are also of importance for the parallel criminological work that conceptualizes bystanders as ‘guardians’ (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Here, it is argued that the mere presence of bystanders has a crime preventive effect, with bystander presence making it more difficult and risky from the perspective of the offender to commit a crime. Although this situational approach is effective in deterring ‘cold-headed’ crimes, (e.g., robberies, burglaries, petty theft), it may be less effective against ‘hot-headed’ crimes, such as street violent assaults (Hayward, 2007). Moving beyond a mere focus on bystander presence as a deterrent to crime, in this paper, we suggest that bystander actions may offer new avenues for behavior-based crime prevention initiatives.
Tuesday, June 4, 2019
United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and South Africa: In 9 of 10 public conflicts, at least 1 bystander, but typically several, will do something to help; increased bystander presence is related to a greater likelihood that someone will intervene
Philpot, R., Liebst, L. S., Levine, M., Bernasco, W., & Lindegaard, M. R. (2019). Would I be helped? Cross-national CCTV footage shows that intervention is the norm in public conflicts. American Psychologist, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000469
Abstract: Half a century of research on bystander behavior concludes that individuals are less likely to intervene during an emergency when in the presence of others than when alone. By contrast, little is known regarding the aggregated likelihood that at least someone present at an emergency will do something to help. The importance of establishing this aggregated intervention baseline is not only of scholarly interest but is also the most pressing question for actual public victims—will I receive help if needed? The current article describes the largest systematic study of real-life bystander intervention in actual public conflicts captured by surveillance cameras. Using a unique cross-national video dataset from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and South Africa (N = 219), we show that in 9 of 10 public conflicts, at least 1 bystander, but typically several, will do something to help. We record similar likelihoods of intervention across the 3 national contexts, which differ greatly in levels of perceived public safety. Finally, we find that increased bystander presence is related to a greater likelihood that someone will intervene. Taken together these findings allay the widespread fear that bystanders rarely intervene to help. We argue that it is time for psychology to change the narrative away from an absence of help and toward a new understanding of what makes intervention successful or unsuccessful.
Abstract: Half a century of research on bystander behavior concludes that individuals are less likely to intervene during an emergency when in the presence of others than when alone. By contrast, little is known regarding the aggregated likelihood that at least someone present at an emergency will do something to help. The importance of establishing this aggregated intervention baseline is not only of scholarly interest but is also the most pressing question for actual public victims—will I receive help if needed? The current article describes the largest systematic study of real-life bystander intervention in actual public conflicts captured by surveillance cameras. Using a unique cross-national video dataset from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and South Africa (N = 219), we show that in 9 of 10 public conflicts, at least 1 bystander, but typically several, will do something to help. We record similar likelihoods of intervention across the 3 national contexts, which differ greatly in levels of perceived public safety. Finally, we find that increased bystander presence is related to a greater likelihood that someone will intervene. Taken together these findings allay the widespread fear that bystanders rarely intervene to help. We argue that it is time for psychology to change the narrative away from an absence of help and toward a new understanding of what makes intervention successful or unsuccessful.
Improving Emotional Intelligence: A Systematic Review of Existing Work and Future Challenges
Kotsou, I., Mikolajczak, M., Heeren, A., Grégoire, J., & Leys, C. (2019). Improving Emotional Intelligence: A Systematic Review of Existing Work and Future Challenges. Emotion Review, 11(2), 151–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917735902
Abstract: Emotional intelligence (EI) can be defined as the ability to identify, express, understand, manage, and use emotions. EI has been shown to have an important impact on health, relationships, and work/academic performance. In this article, we present a systematic review of 46 EI intervention studies on adult populations in order to assess their outcomes. Overall, these findings provide some support for the efficacy of EI programs. However, important limitations in most of the studies restrict the generalizability of their results. We discuss the contributions and limitations of these studies and make recommendations for the development and implementation of future interventions.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, emotions, review, training
Abstract: Emotional intelligence (EI) can be defined as the ability to identify, express, understand, manage, and use emotions. EI has been shown to have an important impact on health, relationships, and work/academic performance. In this article, we present a systematic review of 46 EI intervention studies on adult populations in order to assess their outcomes. Overall, these findings provide some support for the efficacy of EI programs. However, important limitations in most of the studies restrict the generalizability of their results. We discuss the contributions and limitations of these studies and make recommendations for the development and implementation of future interventions.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, emotions, review, training
What are the Associations of Body Mass Index, Sexual Dysfunction and Mood in Midlife Women?
What are the Associations of Body Mass Index, Sexual Dysfunction and Mood in Midlife Women? F. Fairbanks, S. Faubion, K. Mara, E. Kapoor. Journal of Sexual Medicine, June 2019, Volume 16, Issue 6, Supplement 3, Page S22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2019.03.504
Menopause-related symptoms affect millions of women worldwide and may impair quality of life. Weight gain is a common complaint among midlife women and is associated with metabolic syndrome, increased cardiovascular risk, and breast and uterine cancers. Psychologycal symptoms, primarily anxiety and depression, are also common among midlife women, particularly during the menopause transition. Nearly half of midlife women report sexual health concerns, and approximately 10% report distress associated with sexual concerns.
Menopause-related symptoms affect millions of women worldwide and may impair quality of life. Weight gain is a common complaint among midlife women and is associated with metabolic syndrome, increased cardiovascular risk, and breast and uterine cancers. Psychologycal symptoms, primarily anxiety and depression, are also common among midlife women, particularly during the menopause transition. Nearly half of midlife women report sexual health concerns, and approximately 10% report distress associated with sexual concerns.
Increasingly, claims are being made by neuroscientists that adolescence is characterised by unique changes to the brain, that underlie what are claimed to be unique behavioural features of the teenage years; author disagrees
Against the Stream: The teenage brain is not unique. Philip Graham. BJPsych Bulletin, June 4 2019. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjb.2019.37
Abstract: Increasingly, claims are being made by developmental neuroscientists that adolescence is characterised by unique changes to the brain. These changes are said to underlie what are claimed to be unique behavioural features of the teenage years. In this paper, it is argued that the brain changes described begin before the teen years and continue long after them. This is not surprising, as there are no behavioural features that are specific to adolescence.
Abstract: Increasingly, claims are being made by developmental neuroscientists that adolescence is characterised by unique changes to the brain. These changes are said to underlie what are claimed to be unique behavioural features of the teenage years. In this paper, it is argued that the brain changes described begin before the teen years and continue long after them. This is not surprising, as there are no behavioural features that are specific to adolescence.
Young Women’s Desire for Sex: Despite sexual double standards, sexual desire is highly prevalent among young women, and is so powerful that when desire is high, they are less likely to use condoms or withdrawal
The Social Production and Salience of Young Women’s Desire for Sex. Abigail Weitzman. Social Forces, soz049, https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soz049, May 29 2019
Abstract: Using data from the Relationship Dynamics and Social Life Study, a diverse sample of 925 women updated weekly for 2.5 years, I (1) describe how desire for sex varies across and within women during the transition to adulthood; (2) explore how desire corresponds with women’s social circumstances and experiences; and (3) assess the relationship between desire for sex, sexual activity, and contraceptive use. The strength of young women’s desire varies across demographic characteristics like religiosity and social class; changes after pivotal events like sexual debut; and varies with social ecology, such as friends’ attitudes. When women more strongly desire sex they are more likely to have sex and to use hormonal contraception. Moreover, the association between desire and sex is especially pronounced when women are using a hormonal method. In contrast, when women more strongly desire sex they are less likely to use condoms or withdrawal, irrespective of hormonal use. These findings suggest that sexual desire is socially situated and relevant for both anticipatory and situational decisions about contraception.
Abstract: Using data from the Relationship Dynamics and Social Life Study, a diverse sample of 925 women updated weekly for 2.5 years, I (1) describe how desire for sex varies across and within women during the transition to adulthood; (2) explore how desire corresponds with women’s social circumstances and experiences; and (3) assess the relationship between desire for sex, sexual activity, and contraceptive use. The strength of young women’s desire varies across demographic characteristics like religiosity and social class; changes after pivotal events like sexual debut; and varies with social ecology, such as friends’ attitudes. When women more strongly desire sex they are more likely to have sex and to use hormonal contraception. Moreover, the association between desire and sex is especially pronounced when women are using a hormonal method. In contrast, when women more strongly desire sex they are less likely to use condoms or withdrawal, irrespective of hormonal use. These findings suggest that sexual desire is socially situated and relevant for both anticipatory and situational decisions about contraception.
Evolutionary Theories and Men's Preferences for Women's Waist-to-Hip Ratio: Which Hypotheses Remain? A Systematic Review
Evolutionary Theories and Men's Preferences for Women's Waist-to-Hip Ratio: Which Hypotheses Remain? A Systematic Review. Jeanne Bovet. Front. Psychol., June 4 2019https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01221
Abstract: Over the last 25 years, a large amount of research has been dedicated to identifying men's preferences for women's physical features, and the evolutionary benefits associated with such preferences. Today, this area of research generates substantial controversy and criticism. I argue that part of the crisis is due to inaccuracies in the evolutionary hypotheses used in the field. For this review, I focus on the extensive literature regarding men's adaptive preferences for women's waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), which has become a classic example of the just-so storytelling contributing to the general mistrust toward evolutionary explanations of human behavior. The issues in this literature originate in the vagueness and incompleteness of the theorizing of the evolutionary mechanisms leading to mate preferences. Authors seem to have rushed into testing and debating the effects of WHR on women's attractiveness under various conditions and using different stimuli, without first establishing (a) clear definitions of the central evolution concepts (e.g., female mate value is often reduced to an imprecise concept of “health-and-fertility”), and (b) a complete overview of the distinct evolutionary paths potentially at work (e.g., focusing on fecundability while omitting descendants' quality). Unsound theoretical foundations will lead to imprecise predictions which cannot properly be tested, thus ultimately resulting in the premature rejection of an evolutionary explanation to human mate preferences. This paper provides the first comprehensive review of the existing hypotheses on why men's preferences for a certain WHR in women might be adaptive, as well as an analysis of the theoretical credibility of these hypotheses. By dissecting the evolutionary reasoning behind each hypothesis, I show which hypotheses are plausible and which are unfit to account for men's preferences for female WHR. Moreover, the most cited hypotheses (e.g., WHR as a cue of health or fecundity) are found to not necessarily be the ones with the strongest theoretical support, and some promising hypotheses (e.g., WHR as a cue of parity or current pregnancy) have seemingly been mostly overlooked. Finally, I suggest some directions for future studies on human mate choice, to move this evolutionary psychology literature toward a stronger theoretical foundation.
Introduction
The ratio between the waist and the hips circumferences (Waist-to-Hip Ratio, or WHR) is a physical characteristic often used as an example to show that evolution shaped human mate preferences. It is also an example of just-so storytelling in evolutionary psychology. In 1993, Devendra Singh suggested that WHR represents a strong predictor of women's physical attractiveness (Singh, 1993a). He also argued that men's preference for a mate with a low WHR is adaptive, because a low WHR reflects a woman's high mate value. But what exactly is this “mate value”? During the past 25 years, the evolutionary literature on WHR and women's attractiveness has flourished, but the definition of this “mate value” is rarely expressed. In evolutionary biology, mate value is attached to the concept of reproductive success: a woman with a high mate value will increase the reproductive success of her mate(s). An increase in reproductive success is characterized by an increased number of descendants in next generations and can be achieved in various ways. First, survival until reproduction is indispensable. Second, the number of children born during an individual's lifespan is also crucial. But the survival and the quality of these children will directly impact their own reproductive success, and hence the number of grandchildren in the next generation, thus ultimately influencing the reproductive success of the grandparents. In short, a woman has higher value as a potential mate if she increases the number and quality of descendants a man will have (including the ones he has with other women). The question then is which of these components of reproductive success are actually linked to a mate's WHR? To answer this, I assemble the numerous hypotheses exposed since the idea of the WHR as an indicator of women's mate value was first suggested in 1993. These hypotheses are examined to determine which of the characteristics linked to WHR are most likely, in theory, to be translated into an increase in the reproductive success of the woman's mate.
The objective of this review is 2-fold. The first goal is to gather and pool all the existing evolutionary hypotheses regarding men's preferences for a certain (low, high or average) WHR. There are many reviews about men's preferences for women's WHR, but this is the first exhaustive review of the hypotheses mentioned in these studies. The second purpose of this paper is an in-depth theoretical examination of these hypotheses, which are often only briefly justified and, in some cases, have never been properly developed.
Most of the debate around WHR and attractiveness has centered on two other questions: “Is the preference for a low WHR universal?” and “Is WHR the best predictor of the attractiveness of women's bodies?” I will not address these two questions extensively here (it is beyond the scope of this paper), but a brief commentary seems necessary at this point. A preference for a relatively low WHR (i.e., low relatively to men's WHR, or low relatively to the average female WHR) has been observed in a large number of studies, including a wide range of populations and methods. With that in mind, results show that there is some variation in what is the exact value of the ideal WHR [reviewed in Brooks et al. (2015) and Cashdan (2008)]. The second debate concerns WHR as the “best” predictor for attractiveness. Authors have debated whether WHR or BMI is the best predictor of attractiveness and mate value (Tassinary and Hansen, 1998; Tovée et al., 1999; Furnham et al., 2005; Cornelissen et al., 2009a,b). As could be expected, the results vary according to the population and stimuli used. Other measurements have also been proposed to replace WHR (for example, hip or waist size alone, abdominal depth or waist/stature ratio: Brooks et al., 2010, 2015; Lassek and Gaulin, 2016). The objective of this paper is not to decide if WHR is the best measure of physical attractiveness or if the ideal WHR is universal or not. For our purposes, it is sufficient to note that the effect of WHR on attractiveness is widespread (even if the value of the preferred WHR varies), and large enough to warrant questions about its possible adaptive basis.
Abstract: Over the last 25 years, a large amount of research has been dedicated to identifying men's preferences for women's physical features, and the evolutionary benefits associated with such preferences. Today, this area of research generates substantial controversy and criticism. I argue that part of the crisis is due to inaccuracies in the evolutionary hypotheses used in the field. For this review, I focus on the extensive literature regarding men's adaptive preferences for women's waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), which has become a classic example of the just-so storytelling contributing to the general mistrust toward evolutionary explanations of human behavior. The issues in this literature originate in the vagueness and incompleteness of the theorizing of the evolutionary mechanisms leading to mate preferences. Authors seem to have rushed into testing and debating the effects of WHR on women's attractiveness under various conditions and using different stimuli, without first establishing (a) clear definitions of the central evolution concepts (e.g., female mate value is often reduced to an imprecise concept of “health-and-fertility”), and (b) a complete overview of the distinct evolutionary paths potentially at work (e.g., focusing on fecundability while omitting descendants' quality). Unsound theoretical foundations will lead to imprecise predictions which cannot properly be tested, thus ultimately resulting in the premature rejection of an evolutionary explanation to human mate preferences. This paper provides the first comprehensive review of the existing hypotheses on why men's preferences for a certain WHR in women might be adaptive, as well as an analysis of the theoretical credibility of these hypotheses. By dissecting the evolutionary reasoning behind each hypothesis, I show which hypotheses are plausible and which are unfit to account for men's preferences for female WHR. Moreover, the most cited hypotheses (e.g., WHR as a cue of health or fecundity) are found to not necessarily be the ones with the strongest theoretical support, and some promising hypotheses (e.g., WHR as a cue of parity or current pregnancy) have seemingly been mostly overlooked. Finally, I suggest some directions for future studies on human mate choice, to move this evolutionary psychology literature toward a stronger theoretical foundation.
Introduction
The ratio between the waist and the hips circumferences (Waist-to-Hip Ratio, or WHR) is a physical characteristic often used as an example to show that evolution shaped human mate preferences. It is also an example of just-so storytelling in evolutionary psychology. In 1993, Devendra Singh suggested that WHR represents a strong predictor of women's physical attractiveness (Singh, 1993a). He also argued that men's preference for a mate with a low WHR is adaptive, because a low WHR reflects a woman's high mate value. But what exactly is this “mate value”? During the past 25 years, the evolutionary literature on WHR and women's attractiveness has flourished, but the definition of this “mate value” is rarely expressed. In evolutionary biology, mate value is attached to the concept of reproductive success: a woman with a high mate value will increase the reproductive success of her mate(s). An increase in reproductive success is characterized by an increased number of descendants in next generations and can be achieved in various ways. First, survival until reproduction is indispensable. Second, the number of children born during an individual's lifespan is also crucial. But the survival and the quality of these children will directly impact their own reproductive success, and hence the number of grandchildren in the next generation, thus ultimately influencing the reproductive success of the grandparents. In short, a woman has higher value as a potential mate if she increases the number and quality of descendants a man will have (including the ones he has with other women). The question then is which of these components of reproductive success are actually linked to a mate's WHR? To answer this, I assemble the numerous hypotheses exposed since the idea of the WHR as an indicator of women's mate value was first suggested in 1993. These hypotheses are examined to determine which of the characteristics linked to WHR are most likely, in theory, to be translated into an increase in the reproductive success of the woman's mate.
The objective of this review is 2-fold. The first goal is to gather and pool all the existing evolutionary hypotheses regarding men's preferences for a certain (low, high or average) WHR. There are many reviews about men's preferences for women's WHR, but this is the first exhaustive review of the hypotheses mentioned in these studies. The second purpose of this paper is an in-depth theoretical examination of these hypotheses, which are often only briefly justified and, in some cases, have never been properly developed.
Most of the debate around WHR and attractiveness has centered on two other questions: “Is the preference for a low WHR universal?” and “Is WHR the best predictor of the attractiveness of women's bodies?” I will not address these two questions extensively here (it is beyond the scope of this paper), but a brief commentary seems necessary at this point. A preference for a relatively low WHR (i.e., low relatively to men's WHR, or low relatively to the average female WHR) has been observed in a large number of studies, including a wide range of populations and methods. With that in mind, results show that there is some variation in what is the exact value of the ideal WHR [reviewed in Brooks et al. (2015) and Cashdan (2008)]. The second debate concerns WHR as the “best” predictor for attractiveness. Authors have debated whether WHR or BMI is the best predictor of attractiveness and mate value (Tassinary and Hansen, 1998; Tovée et al., 1999; Furnham et al., 2005; Cornelissen et al., 2009a,b). As could be expected, the results vary according to the population and stimuli used. Other measurements have also been proposed to replace WHR (for example, hip or waist size alone, abdominal depth or waist/stature ratio: Brooks et al., 2010, 2015; Lassek and Gaulin, 2016). The objective of this paper is not to decide if WHR is the best measure of physical attractiveness or if the ideal WHR is universal or not. For our purposes, it is sufficient to note that the effect of WHR on attractiveness is widespread (even if the value of the preferred WHR varies), and large enough to warrant questions about its possible adaptive basis.
Conservatives are consistently more supportive of hydraulic fracturing (fracking), liberals are consistently more opposed; liberals (conservatives) who report being more informed are likely to see greater (lesser) risk from fracking
Seeing through risk-colored glasses: Risk and benefit perceptions, knowledge, and the politics of fracking in the United States. Emily L. Howell et al. Energy Research & Social Science, Volume 55, September 2019, Pages 168-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.05.020
Abstract: Political conservatives are consistently more supportive of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) in the U.S., while political liberals are consistently more opposed, yet the processes shaping this division are largely unexplored. Here, we illustrate how political polarization in support for fracking can be understood by how risk and benefit perceptions mediate the relationship between political ideology and support for fracking, with liberals seeing greater risk and less benefit. Importantly, however, especially for understanding opinion formation around the issue of fracking, perceived knowledge exacerbates this division. Liberals who report being more informed about fracking are likely to see greater risk from fracking. Conservatives who report being more informed, however, do not see a significantly different level of risk than do conservatives who are less informed but are much more likely than any other group to see greater benefit from fracking. The result is that those who perceive themselves as highly knowledgeable about fracking are the most likely to be polarized by political ideology in their perceptions of the level of risk and benefit associated with fracking and, in turn, their level of support for the technology. We discuss the implications of these findings for communication and decision-making in the politically polarized environment around fracking.
Abstract: Political conservatives are consistently more supportive of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) in the U.S., while political liberals are consistently more opposed, yet the processes shaping this division are largely unexplored. Here, we illustrate how political polarization in support for fracking can be understood by how risk and benefit perceptions mediate the relationship between political ideology and support for fracking, with liberals seeing greater risk and less benefit. Importantly, however, especially for understanding opinion formation around the issue of fracking, perceived knowledge exacerbates this division. Liberals who report being more informed about fracking are likely to see greater risk from fracking. Conservatives who report being more informed, however, do not see a significantly different level of risk than do conservatives who are less informed but are much more likely than any other group to see greater benefit from fracking. The result is that those who perceive themselves as highly knowledgeable about fracking are the most likely to be polarized by political ideology in their perceptions of the level of risk and benefit associated with fracking and, in turn, their level of support for the technology. We discuss the implications of these findings for communication and decision-making in the politically polarized environment around fracking.
Monday, June 3, 2019
Political and nonpolitical considerations on roommate selection: Partisanship strongly influences this social decision even in the presence of nonpolitical-but-politically-correlated individuating information, outweighing cleanliness
Political Considerations in Nonpolitical Decisions: A Conjoint Analysis of Roommate Choice. Richard M. Shafranek. Political Behavior, June 3 2019. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-019-09554-9
Abstract: Research shows the increasing tendency of partisan considerations to influence decisions outside the context of politics, including residential choice. Scholars attribute this tendency to affective distaste for members of the other party. However, little work has investigated the relative influence of political and nonpolitical factors in these situations—and it has not sufficiently ruled out alternative explanations for these phenomena. Do people mainly choose to socially avoid members of the other party for political reasons, or is partisanship simply perceived to be correlated with relevant nonpolitical considerations? In some settings, political affiliation may serve primarily as a cue for other factors. As a result, studies that manipulate partisanship but fail to include other individuating information may exaggerate partisanship’s importance in these decisions. To address this shortcoming, I assess the impact of political and nonpolitical considerations on roommate selection via conjoint analysis. I find that partisanship strongly influences this social decision even in the presence of nonpolitical-but-politically-correlated individuating information. Partisan preferences are also moderated by roommates’ perceived levels of political interest. Finally, other social traits do matter, but how they matter depends on partisanship. Specifically, partisans report increased willingness to live with counter-stereotypic out-partisans. This suggests that partisan social divides may be more easily bridged by individuals with cross-cutting identities.
Keywords: Partisanship Affective polarization Homophily Conjoint
Abstract: Research shows the increasing tendency of partisan considerations to influence decisions outside the context of politics, including residential choice. Scholars attribute this tendency to affective distaste for members of the other party. However, little work has investigated the relative influence of political and nonpolitical factors in these situations—and it has not sufficiently ruled out alternative explanations for these phenomena. Do people mainly choose to socially avoid members of the other party for political reasons, or is partisanship simply perceived to be correlated with relevant nonpolitical considerations? In some settings, political affiliation may serve primarily as a cue for other factors. As a result, studies that manipulate partisanship but fail to include other individuating information may exaggerate partisanship’s importance in these decisions. To address this shortcoming, I assess the impact of political and nonpolitical considerations on roommate selection via conjoint analysis. I find that partisanship strongly influences this social decision even in the presence of nonpolitical-but-politically-correlated individuating information. Partisan preferences are also moderated by roommates’ perceived levels of political interest. Finally, other social traits do matter, but how they matter depends on partisanship. Specifically, partisans report increased willingness to live with counter-stereotypic out-partisans. This suggests that partisan social divides may be more easily bridged by individuals with cross-cutting identities.
Keywords: Partisanship Affective polarization Homophily Conjoint
Of two persons with six fingers on their hands, MRI revealed that it is actuated by extra muscles & nerves, & fMRI identified a distinct cortical representation of the extra finger; were able with only one hand of tasks normally requiring 2
Augmented manipulation ability in humans with six-fingered hands. C. Mehring, M. Akselrod, L. Bashford, M. Mace, H. Choi, M. Blüher, A.-S. Buschhoff, T. Pistohl, R. Salomon, A. Cheah, O. Blanke, A. Serino & E. Burdet. Nature Communications 10, Article number: 2401 (2019). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-10306-w
Abstract: Neurotechnology attempts to develop supernumerary limbs, but can the human brain deal with the complexity to control an extra limb and yield advantages from it? Here, we analyzed the neuromechanics and manipulation abilities of two polydactyly subjects who each possess six fingers on their hands. Anatomical MRI of the supernumerary finger (SF) revealed that it is actuated by extra muscles and nerves, and fMRI identified a distinct cortical representation of the SF. In both subjects, the SF was able to move independently from the other fingers. Polydactyly subjects were able to coordinate the SF with their other fingers for more complex movements than five fingered subjects, and so carry out with only one hand tasks normally requiring two hands. These results demonstrate that a body with significantly more degrees-of-freedom can be controlled by the human nervous system without causing motor deficits or impairments and can instead provide superior manipulation abilities.
Abstract: Neurotechnology attempts to develop supernumerary limbs, but can the human brain deal with the complexity to control an extra limb and yield advantages from it? Here, we analyzed the neuromechanics and manipulation abilities of two polydactyly subjects who each possess six fingers on their hands. Anatomical MRI of the supernumerary finger (SF) revealed that it is actuated by extra muscles and nerves, and fMRI identified a distinct cortical representation of the SF. In both subjects, the SF was able to move independently from the other fingers. Polydactyly subjects were able to coordinate the SF with their other fingers for more complex movements than five fingered subjects, and so carry out with only one hand tasks normally requiring two hands. These results demonstrate that a body with significantly more degrees-of-freedom can be controlled by the human nervous system without causing motor deficits or impairments and can instead provide superior manipulation abilities.
Sexual Medicine Health Care Professionals Sexual Behavior and Practices: 32% of those surveyed have had sex in the office
Behind Closed Doors: Assessing Sexual Medicine Health Care Professionals Sexual Behavior and Practices. M. Krychman. Journal of Sexual Medicine, June 2019, Volume 16, Issue 6, Supplement 3, Page S23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2019.03.506
Abstract: It is a common believed misperception that those who treat sexual medicine conditions enjoy an active robust sexual life with their partners. The perception is that medical professionals who treat male and sexual problems are more sexually active, experimental in their behavior and have a willingness to discuss sexually related topics in public forums unrelated to work. A survey was conducted to assess the sexual behavior of health care professional who diagnosis, treat and assess sexual concerns in their patients.
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among other data:
sex in public with threat of discovery 78pct
anal sex 72pct
threesome sex 48pct
annilingus 50pct
BDSM 38pct
sex in the office: 32pct
Abstract: It is a common believed misperception that those who treat sexual medicine conditions enjoy an active robust sexual life with their partners. The perception is that medical professionals who treat male and sexual problems are more sexually active, experimental in their behavior and have a willingness to discuss sexually related topics in public forums unrelated to work. A survey was conducted to assess the sexual behavior of health care professional who diagnosis, treat and assess sexual concerns in their patients.
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among other data:
sex in public with threat of discovery 78pct
anal sex 72pct
threesome sex 48pct
annilingus 50pct
BDSM 38pct
sex in the office: 32pct
Toddlers prefer those who win but not when they win by force
Toddlers prefer those who win but not when they win by force. Ashley J. Thomas, Lotte Thomsen, Angela F. Lukowski, Meline Abramyan, Barbara W. Sarnecka. Human Behavior and Evolution Society 31st annual meeting. Boston 2019. http://tiny.cc/aa1w6y
Abstract: Social hierarchies occur across human societies, so all humans must navigate them. Infants can detect when one individual outranks another, but it is unknown whether they approach others based on their social status. This paper presents a series of seven experiments investigating whether toddlers prefer high- or low-ranking individuals. Toddlers aged 21–31 months watched a zero-sum, right-of-way conflict between two puppets, in which one puppet ‘won’ because the other yielded the way. Of the 23 toddlers who participated, 20 reached for the puppet that ‘won’. However, when one puppet used force and knocked the other puppet down in order to win, 18 out of 22 toddlers reached for the puppet that ‘lost’. Five follow-up experiments ruled out alternative explanations for these results. The findings suggest that humans, from a very early age, not only recognize relative status but also incorporate status into their decisions about whether to approach or avoid others, in a way that differs from our nearest primate relatives.
Abstract: Social hierarchies occur across human societies, so all humans must navigate them. Infants can detect when one individual outranks another, but it is unknown whether they approach others based on their social status. This paper presents a series of seven experiments investigating whether toddlers prefer high- or low-ranking individuals. Toddlers aged 21–31 months watched a zero-sum, right-of-way conflict between two puppets, in which one puppet ‘won’ because the other yielded the way. Of the 23 toddlers who participated, 20 reached for the puppet that ‘won’. However, when one puppet used force and knocked the other puppet down in order to win, 18 out of 22 toddlers reached for the puppet that ‘lost’. Five follow-up experiments ruled out alternative explanations for these results. The findings suggest that humans, from a very early age, not only recognize relative status but also incorporate status into their decisions about whether to approach or avoid others, in a way that differs from our nearest primate relatives.
Liberalism may result from relatively unpredictable childhood, with personality types optimized for short-term relationships, risk-taking, novelty, & creativity; conservatives may be suited for stable surroundings with low risk payoffs
Ideology, attachment, and life history strategy: Cultural conservatism may be an ontogenetic product of high-predictability niches. Connor Wood, Jonathan Morgan, John Shaver. Human Behavior and Evolution Society 31st annual meeting. Boston 2019. http://tiny.cc/aa1w6y
Attachment theory and life history theory may offer useful tools for investigating the psychological bases of ideological commitments. Thornhill and Fincher (2007) found that conservatives exhibited more secure attachment styles than liberals and reported more positive childhood memories, suggesting that liberal orientations result from relatively unpredictable childhood environments that produce personality types optimized for short-term relationships, risk-taking, novelty, and creativity. Conservatives, by contrast, may be suited for stable surroundings with low risk payoffs. However, other studies have questioned these results (Koleva and Rip 2009; Gaziano 2017). Therefore, we set out in a preregistered study to conceptually replicate Thornhill and Fincher’s 2007 findings in light of life history theory (Del Guidice, 2009). Individuals with “fast” life histories pursue low-investment reproductive strategies. “Slow” LH strategies are characterized by more parental and relational investment. In a sample of >600, we found that certain kinds of ideological conservatism – specifically cultural conservatism– were strongly associated with stable childhood backgrounds and with slow life-history variables, corroborating Thornhill and Fincher’s interpretation. However, the association between conservatism and attachment style held only for female subjects. Conservatism may be an adaptation for stable cultural niches, but attachment style may not be the critical variable.
Attachment theory and life history theory may offer useful tools for investigating the psychological bases of ideological commitments. Thornhill and Fincher (2007) found that conservatives exhibited more secure attachment styles than liberals and reported more positive childhood memories, suggesting that liberal orientations result from relatively unpredictable childhood environments that produce personality types optimized for short-term relationships, risk-taking, novelty, and creativity. Conservatives, by contrast, may be suited for stable surroundings with low risk payoffs. However, other studies have questioned these results (Koleva and Rip 2009; Gaziano 2017). Therefore, we set out in a preregistered study to conceptually replicate Thornhill and Fincher’s 2007 findings in light of life history theory (Del Guidice, 2009). Individuals with “fast” life histories pursue low-investment reproductive strategies. “Slow” LH strategies are characterized by more parental and relational investment. In a sample of >600, we found that certain kinds of ideological conservatism – specifically cultural conservatism– were strongly associated with stable childhood backgrounds and with slow life-history variables, corroborating Thornhill and Fincher’s interpretation. However, the association between conservatism and attachment style held only for female subjects. Conservatism may be an adaptation for stable cultural niches, but attachment style may not be the critical variable.
What do people think diseases look, smell, sound, taste, and feel like?
What do people think diseases look, smell, sound, taste, and feel like? Josh Ackerman, Wilson Merrell, Soyeon Choi. Human Behavior and Evolution Society 31st annual meeting. Boston 2019. http://tiny.cc/aa1w6y
Abstract: Humans have basic five senses: sight, smell, sound, taste, and touch. These five senses help us perceive and navigate the world, enabling us to approach potential rewards and avoid imminent threats. In this study, we examined how people believe they use the five sensory modalities to detect an important environmental threat, the risk of infectious diseases. Using a fully within-subjects design, 300 participants read a scenario where they imagined a flu outbreak and thus needing to determine whether another person was sick or not. Participants ranked the five senses (sight, smell, sound, taste, touch) in terms of perceived effectiveness in detecting infection and how likely they would be to actually use each of the senses. Rankings of effectiveness and likelihood of use were similar, in the descending order of sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. Participants’ expected emotional reactions, confidence in their disease-detection abilities, and individual differences in pathogen disgust and perceived vulnerability to disease were also examined. While the existing research has mainly focused on direct and indirect consequences of disease detection, this study provides interesting insights into people’s lay beliefs of the detection process itself.
Abstract: Humans have basic five senses: sight, smell, sound, taste, and touch. These five senses help us perceive and navigate the world, enabling us to approach potential rewards and avoid imminent threats. In this study, we examined how people believe they use the five sensory modalities to detect an important environmental threat, the risk of infectious diseases. Using a fully within-subjects design, 300 participants read a scenario where they imagined a flu outbreak and thus needing to determine whether another person was sick or not. Participants ranked the five senses (sight, smell, sound, taste, touch) in terms of perceived effectiveness in detecting infection and how likely they would be to actually use each of the senses. Rankings of effectiveness and likelihood of use were similar, in the descending order of sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. Participants’ expected emotional reactions, confidence in their disease-detection abilities, and individual differences in pathogen disgust and perceived vulnerability to disease were also examined. While the existing research has mainly focused on direct and indirect consequences of disease detection, this study provides interesting insights into people’s lay beliefs of the detection process itself.
Contrary to most previous findings, women’s clothing style and grooming did not change according to cycle phase or hormone levels; women may not advertise their fertility with different clothing styles or make-up usage
Probing ovulatory cycle shifts in women’s make-up and clothing style. Julia Stern, Stephanie Rudolph, Lars Penke. Human Behavior and Evolution Society 31st annual meeting. Boston 2019. http://tiny.cc/aa1w6y
The existence of ovulatory cycle shifts in women’s mate preferences and sexual desire has been discussed controversially, highlighting methodological criticism and the need for high powered replication studies. However, there is still a lack of replication studies investigating whether women actually advertise their fertility to signal sexual proceptivity to men, by dressing more attractive (wearing red, sexy or skin revealing clothes) and spending more time and effort in grooming. We addressed this lack of research in a large, pre-registered within-subject study including salivary hormone measures and luteinizing hormone tests. One-hundred-fifty-seven female participants have been photographed in a standardized setting four times across two ovulatory cycles. All photographs were coded on a number of variables for three dimensions: a) clothing color (e.g. wearing red), b) body exposure (e.g. wearing skin revealing clothes), c) grooming (incl. make-up use, hairstyle or accessoires). Multilevel intraindividual comparisons revealed that, contrary to most previous findings, women’s clothing style and grooming did not change according to cycle phase or hormone levels. These results indicate that women may not advertise their fertility with different clothing styles or make-up usage. Hormonal mechanisms and implications for estrus theories will be discussed.
The existence of ovulatory cycle shifts in women’s mate preferences and sexual desire has been discussed controversially, highlighting methodological criticism and the need for high powered replication studies. However, there is still a lack of replication studies investigating whether women actually advertise their fertility to signal sexual proceptivity to men, by dressing more attractive (wearing red, sexy or skin revealing clothes) and spending more time and effort in grooming. We addressed this lack of research in a large, pre-registered within-subject study including salivary hormone measures and luteinizing hormone tests. One-hundred-fifty-seven female participants have been photographed in a standardized setting four times across two ovulatory cycles. All photographs were coded on a number of variables for three dimensions: a) clothing color (e.g. wearing red), b) body exposure (e.g. wearing skin revealing clothes), c) grooming (incl. make-up use, hairstyle or accessoires). Multilevel intraindividual comparisons revealed that, contrary to most previous findings, women’s clothing style and grooming did not change according to cycle phase or hormone levels. These results indicate that women may not advertise their fertility with different clothing styles or make-up usage. Hormonal mechanisms and implications for estrus theories will be discussed.
Sunday, June 2, 2019
The fact that women wrote more graffiti with sexual content might be explained by the SIDE-model which states that breaking with social norms is easier in groups or in situations of total anonymity
He writes a lot, she gets to the point - sex differences in bathroom graffiti. Kathrin Masuch, Susanne Schmehl, Elisabeth Oberzaucher. Human Behavior and Evolution Society 31st annual meeting. Boston 2019. http://tiny.cc/aa1w6y
Abstract: Graffiti might be seen as a special kind of art or vandalism, but they are a special way of communication. Public bathrooms are most suitable for research on graffiti as they offer privacy and shield from the influence of other persons. Earlier research on graffiti showed that women are not as likely as men to create graffiti. Robin Dunbar claimed that the content of gossip is based on evolutionary strategies. Therefore, females tend to talk about social interactions and support, whereas men are more likely to verbally intimidate possible competitors. We examined 165 bathrooms in restaurants and bars and classified 4747 graffiti. We picked locations of high variability to ensure high social and educational diversity of visitors. Data analysis revealed a number of sex differences. Graffiti conveying social information and sexual content are found more often in ladies’ bathrooms, but generally, more graffiti are found in men’s rooms. The results partially support earlier findings but also raise new questions: The fact that women wrote more graffiti with sexual content might be explained by the SIDE-model which states that breaking with social norms is easier in groups or in situations of total anonymity.
Abstract: Graffiti might be seen as a special kind of art or vandalism, but they are a special way of communication. Public bathrooms are most suitable for research on graffiti as they offer privacy and shield from the influence of other persons. Earlier research on graffiti showed that women are not as likely as men to create graffiti. Robin Dunbar claimed that the content of gossip is based on evolutionary strategies. Therefore, females tend to talk about social interactions and support, whereas men are more likely to verbally intimidate possible competitors. We examined 165 bathrooms in restaurants and bars and classified 4747 graffiti. We picked locations of high variability to ensure high social and educational diversity of visitors. Data analysis revealed a number of sex differences. Graffiti conveying social information and sexual content are found more often in ladies’ bathrooms, but generally, more graffiti are found in men’s rooms. The results partially support earlier findings but also raise new questions: The fact that women wrote more graffiti with sexual content might be explained by the SIDE-model which states that breaking with social norms is easier in groups or in situations of total anonymity.
Sense of humor is a sexuality selected trait, signalling underlying mate quality and intelligence; women view humor production ability as more important when choosing a mate; men are better at it
Sex differences in humor production ability - a meta-analysis. Gil Greengross, Paul J. Silvia, Emily C. Nusbaum. Human Behavior and Evolution Society 31st annual meeting. Boston 2019. http://tiny.cc/aa1w6y
Abstract: There is abundant evidence that sense of humor is a sexuality selected trait, signalling underlying mate quality and intelligence. Consistent with sexual selection and mental fitness indicator theories, women view humor production ability as more important when choosing a mate. However, it is not clear if men actually possess higher humor abilities than women. We offer the first comprehensive quantitative meta-analysis on the topic, aimed at measuring the magnitude of such differences, if present. We included studies where participants identified as male or female created humor output that was assessed for funniness by independent raters who were blind to any characteristics of the subjects. Our meta-analysis includes 36 effect sizes from 28 studies (N = 5057, 67% women, including college and non-college students). Twenty of the 36 effect sizes, accounting for 61% of the participants, were not previously published. Results based on random-effects model revealed that men’s humor output was rated as funnier than women’s, with a combined effect size d = 0.321. Results were robust across various moderators and study characteristics, and multiple tests indicated that publication bias is unlikely. Overall, the results are consistent with the signalling hypothesis, and the view that humor is a sexually selected trait.
Abstract: There is abundant evidence that sense of humor is a sexuality selected trait, signalling underlying mate quality and intelligence. Consistent with sexual selection and mental fitness indicator theories, women view humor production ability as more important when choosing a mate. However, it is not clear if men actually possess higher humor abilities than women. We offer the first comprehensive quantitative meta-analysis on the topic, aimed at measuring the magnitude of such differences, if present. We included studies where participants identified as male or female created humor output that was assessed for funniness by independent raters who were blind to any characteristics of the subjects. Our meta-analysis includes 36 effect sizes from 28 studies (N = 5057, 67% women, including college and non-college students). Twenty of the 36 effect sizes, accounting for 61% of the participants, were not previously published. Results based on random-effects model revealed that men’s humor output was rated as funnier than women’s, with a combined effect size d = 0.321. Results were robust across various moderators and study characteristics, and multiple tests indicated that publication bias is unlikely. Overall, the results are consistent with the signalling hypothesis, and the view that humor is a sexually selected trait.
Male Solosexuality: A man's preference to engage in masturbation as a sole or primary means of sexual expression; the central emotional hallmark is admiration, veneration, and glorification of the penis
The Practice, Identity, and Ideology of Male Solosexuality: Description and Sexual Health Overview. Bill Herring. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, Jun 1 2019. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2019.1615586
Abstract: This article introduces the core characteristics of male solosexuality, a recent identity construction, ideological narrative and set of associated sexual practices organized around communal online male masturbation and idealization of the penis. Behaviorally, solosexuality refers to a man's preference to engage in masturbation as a sole or primary means of sexual expression, while its central emotional hallmark is admiration, veneration, and glorification of the penis. After introducing the central behavioral and ideological components of male solosexuality this article applies a concise set of sexual health principles to assess the potential benefits and risks of what some people consider to be not just a collection of sexual attitudes and behaviors but an emerging sexual identity. This article reviews a range of potential motivations for solosexual behavior and shows how the same behavior may represent different degrees of adaptive or problematic components among its practitioners.
Abstract: This article introduces the core characteristics of male solosexuality, a recent identity construction, ideological narrative and set of associated sexual practices organized around communal online male masturbation and idealization of the penis. Behaviorally, solosexuality refers to a man's preference to engage in masturbation as a sole or primary means of sexual expression, while its central emotional hallmark is admiration, veneration, and glorification of the penis. After introducing the central behavioral and ideological components of male solosexuality this article applies a concise set of sexual health principles to assess the potential benefits and risks of what some people consider to be not just a collection of sexual attitudes and behaviors but an emerging sexual identity. This article reviews a range of potential motivations for solosexual behavior and shows how the same behavior may represent different degrees of adaptive or problematic components among its practitioners.
We remember & act on others’ unique preferences, especially our kin and romantic partners; women are better at predicting some preferences (food, environments & pastimes) of their male partner than vice versa
Gifted at gift giving- An evolutionary perspective on preference accuracy. Diana Fleischman, Sophie Berryman. Human Behavior and Evolution Society 31st annual meeting. Boston 2019. http://tiny.cc/aa1w6y
Abstract: Humans remember and act on others’ unique preferences, especially our kin and romantic partners. Preference accuracy has been shown in two monogamous bird species, but there is little other comparative evidence. Although men give the majority of gifts cross-culturally, some evidence indicates women are better at anticipating the gift preferences of others, even when only presented with a photo of the recipient. Here I present a new study of 54 heterosexual romantic couples and their ability to predict one another’s preferences in domains including food, environments and pastimes. We find that, in two out of three domains, women are better at predicting the preferences of their male partner than vice versa. We also find that social intelligence, measured by accuracy in the "Mind in the Eyes" task, predicts better preference accuracy. We replicate a previous counterintuitive effect showing worse prediction accuracy in couples who have been together longer. We do not find that preference accuracy predicts relationship satisfaction. I’ll consider why we take the time, attention and effort to learn one another’s preferences from an evolutionary perspective.
Abstract: Humans remember and act on others’ unique preferences, especially our kin and romantic partners. Preference accuracy has been shown in two monogamous bird species, but there is little other comparative evidence. Although men give the majority of gifts cross-culturally, some evidence indicates women are better at anticipating the gift preferences of others, even when only presented with a photo of the recipient. Here I present a new study of 54 heterosexual romantic couples and their ability to predict one another’s preferences in domains including food, environments and pastimes. We find that, in two out of three domains, women are better at predicting the preferences of their male partner than vice versa. We also find that social intelligence, measured by accuracy in the "Mind in the Eyes" task, predicts better preference accuracy. We replicate a previous counterintuitive effect showing worse prediction accuracy in couples who have been together longer. We do not find that preference accuracy predicts relationship satisfaction. I’ll consider why we take the time, attention and effort to learn one another’s preferences from an evolutionary perspective.
Understanding hostility in online political discussions: Individuals who are hostile online are equally likely to be hostile offline, motivated by status and seeking to challenge existing political hierarchies
Why so angry? Understanding hostility in online political discussions. Alexander Bor, Michael Bang Petersen. Behavior and Evolution Society 31st annual meeting. Boston 2019. http://tiny.cc/aa1w6y
Abstract: Across Western democracies, online discussions about politics are considered uncivil, aggressive and hostile. Previous evolutionary research has explained this online political hostility as the result of the evolutionarily novel psychophysics of online environments: Lack of face-to-face interaction etc. down-regulate empathy and prompt hostility as a result of lack of emotion-regulation. On this explanation, online political hostility thus reflects an evolutionary mismatch. In contrast, we integrate (i) classical work on the adaptive functions of aggression and (ii) recent evidence on social media behavior to propose that online political hostility is deliberately employed as an instrumental strategy to further particular political agendas. We investigate this using a large representative sample of US citizens (N = 1500). Against the mismatch account, we find that individuals who are hostile online are equally likely to be hostile offline. Consistent with adaptive accounts of aggression, these individuals are motivated by status and seek to challenge existing political hierarchies. To this end, they invest more in online (vs. offline) political discussions as these discussions offer greater benefits (e.g., more interactions and greater reach) at lower costs. Thus, the hostility of online political discussions reflects a strategic investment in online discussions by aggressive prone individuals rather than an evolutionary mismatch.
Abstract: Across Western democracies, online discussions about politics are considered uncivil, aggressive and hostile. Previous evolutionary research has explained this online political hostility as the result of the evolutionarily novel psychophysics of online environments: Lack of face-to-face interaction etc. down-regulate empathy and prompt hostility as a result of lack of emotion-regulation. On this explanation, online political hostility thus reflects an evolutionary mismatch. In contrast, we integrate (i) classical work on the adaptive functions of aggression and (ii) recent evidence on social media behavior to propose that online political hostility is deliberately employed as an instrumental strategy to further particular political agendas. We investigate this using a large representative sample of US citizens (N = 1500). Against the mismatch account, we find that individuals who are hostile online are equally likely to be hostile offline. Consistent with adaptive accounts of aggression, these individuals are motivated by status and seek to challenge existing political hierarchies. To this end, they invest more in online (vs. offline) political discussions as these discussions offer greater benefits (e.g., more interactions and greater reach) at lower costs. Thus, the hostility of online political discussions reflects a strategic investment in online discussions by aggressive prone individuals rather than an evolutionary mismatch.
Why do (some) women wear chokers? Wearing chokers is a function of short-term mating orientation and both male and female observers see them as such
Why do (some) women wear chokers? Laith Al-Shawaf, Heather Williquette. Human Behavior and Evolution Society 31st annual meeting. Boston 2019. http://tiny.cc/aa1w6y
Abstract: In a series of three studies, we generated and tested seven distinct hypotheses about why women wear choker necklaces and what they signify. Study 1 (n=102) showed that interest in wearing chokers and frequency of wearing chokers were both predicted by women’s sociosexuality, a stable individual difference variable that indexes a person’s dispositional orientation toward short-term mating. Study 2 (n=104) showed that male observers correctly use women’s chokers as a cue to their sociosexuality. Study 3 (n=100) showed that female observers also correctly use women’s chokers as a cue to their short-term mating orientation. These studies find clear support for the hypothesis that wearing chokers is a function of short-term mating orientation and no evidence for the other six hypotheses. These findings suggest two key conclusions: a) choker necklaces appear to be valid cues of sociosexual orientation and b) both male and female observers use them as such.
Abstract: In a series of three studies, we generated and tested seven distinct hypotheses about why women wear choker necklaces and what they signify. Study 1 (n=102) showed that interest in wearing chokers and frequency of wearing chokers were both predicted by women’s sociosexuality, a stable individual difference variable that indexes a person’s dispositional orientation toward short-term mating. Study 2 (n=104) showed that male observers correctly use women’s chokers as a cue to their sociosexuality. Study 3 (n=100) showed that female observers also correctly use women’s chokers as a cue to their short-term mating orientation. These studies find clear support for the hypothesis that wearing chokers is a function of short-term mating orientation and no evidence for the other six hypotheses. These findings suggest two key conclusions: a) choker necklaces appear to be valid cues of sociosexual orientation and b) both male and female observers use them as such.
Alone Together: Important gender imbalances exist in what partners do when together; men are much more likely to watch TV and enjoy leisure while women do domestic chores
Alone Together: Gender Inequalities in Couple Time. Giacomo Vagni. Social Indicators Research, Jun 1 2019. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11205-019-02135-7
Abstract: An important body of research has used time diaries to assess the transformation of gender relationships at home. However, little is known about how partners perceive time shared together. While the household division of labor still remains heavily gendered, it can be expected that what partners do, even when they are together, is also gendered. The aim of this paper is to address the question of the discrepancy (or mismatch) in couples’ reporting of time together as well as the potential discrepancy in the activities engaged in during shared time. Using the 2015 UK Time Use Survey, I show that there is no gender difference in how partners report being together; however, important gender imbalances exist in what partners do when together. In particular, I find that, when together with their partner, men are much more likely to watch TV and enjoy leisure while women do domestic chores. I conclude by discussing different concepts of time together and the usefulness of couple-level diary data for studying gender relationships at home.
Keywords: Time use Gender Families Dyadic data
Abstract: An important body of research has used time diaries to assess the transformation of gender relationships at home. However, little is known about how partners perceive time shared together. While the household division of labor still remains heavily gendered, it can be expected that what partners do, even when they are together, is also gendered. The aim of this paper is to address the question of the discrepancy (or mismatch) in couples’ reporting of time together as well as the potential discrepancy in the activities engaged in during shared time. Using the 2015 UK Time Use Survey, I show that there is no gender difference in how partners report being together; however, important gender imbalances exist in what partners do when together. In particular, I find that, when together with their partner, men are much more likely to watch TV and enjoy leisure while women do domestic chores. I conclude by discussing different concepts of time together and the usefulness of couple-level diary data for studying gender relationships at home.
Keywords: Time use Gender Families Dyadic data
Saturday, June 1, 2019
Pornography & aggression, & sexual & relationship dissatisfaction: Studies reveal methodological bias in favor of findings for effects that disappear when better methodologies are employed
Fisher, W. (2019). 004 How Science Studies Pornography Impact and
What Science Can, and Cannot, Tell Us. The Journal of Sexual Medicine,
16(6), S2. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2019.03.461
Introduction:Sexuality clinicians have been concerned about the impact of pornography on sexual behavior at least since Dr. Ivan Bloch’s declaration, in 1902, that “There is no sexual aberration, no perverse act, however frightful,that is not photographically represented today.” Historically, the US, Britain,and Canada have funded national commissions to investigate the presumed negative effects of pornography, and in very recent years, the US Republican party platform and the US states of Florida and Utah have declared that pornography represents a public health crisis. More recently still, the Canadian parliament launched an inquiry into the health effects of online pornography.
Objective:There is a widely accepted social, scientific, and clinical narrative to the effect that pornography is a pervasive cause of sexual aggression against women, relationship devaluation and deterioration, and cause of sexual dysfunction. This presentation provides an overview of four decades of scientific research on the effects of pornography with a view towards soberly assessing what science can, and cannot, tell us about the effects of pornography on sexual aggression, relationship breakdown, and sexual dysfunction.
Methods:The methodological approaches and findings of classic studies inthe areas of pornography and sexual aggression, pornography and sexual and relationship satisfaction, and pornography-induced sexual dysfunction are reviewed and critiqued.
Results:Careful methodological review of laboratory experimentation concerning pornography and aggression reveals staggering methodological bias in favor of findings for effects of pornography on sexual aggression that disappear when appropriate methodologies are employed. Similarly, findings for effects of pornography on sexual and relationship dissatisfaction appear tohave been exaggerated in close-ended research that focuses solely on assessing harms and are not replicated in open-ended participant-informed research approaches. Findings for pornography-induced sexual dysfunction are ambiguous and may be interpreted to mean that individuals are receiving access to idiosyncratically arousing content in pornography that is not otherwise available to them in setting in which their sexual function is suboptimal.
Conclusions:This overview of research calls attention to the need for scientific skepticism in evaluating widely shared but scientifically questionable conclusions concerning the supposed negative effects of pornography. Attention to methodological bias, failures to replicate, and recognition of conflicting findings suggest that the science does not support the conclusions with any degree of consistency. At the same time, we do see patients clinically who have significant problems with their or their partner’s use of pornography, and careful, clinically relevant science on the actual role of pornography in these presentations and effective treatment approaches that focus appropriately on causal factors remains to be accomplished.
Introduction:Sexuality clinicians have been concerned about the impact of pornography on sexual behavior at least since Dr. Ivan Bloch’s declaration, in 1902, that “There is no sexual aberration, no perverse act, however frightful,that is not photographically represented today.” Historically, the US, Britain,and Canada have funded national commissions to investigate the presumed negative effects of pornography, and in very recent years, the US Republican party platform and the US states of Florida and Utah have declared that pornography represents a public health crisis. More recently still, the Canadian parliament launched an inquiry into the health effects of online pornography.
Objective:There is a widely accepted social, scientific, and clinical narrative to the effect that pornography is a pervasive cause of sexual aggression against women, relationship devaluation and deterioration, and cause of sexual dysfunction. This presentation provides an overview of four decades of scientific research on the effects of pornography with a view towards soberly assessing what science can, and cannot, tell us about the effects of pornography on sexual aggression, relationship breakdown, and sexual dysfunction.
Methods:The methodological approaches and findings of classic studies inthe areas of pornography and sexual aggression, pornography and sexual and relationship satisfaction, and pornography-induced sexual dysfunction are reviewed and critiqued.
Results:Careful methodological review of laboratory experimentation concerning pornography and aggression reveals staggering methodological bias in favor of findings for effects of pornography on sexual aggression that disappear when appropriate methodologies are employed. Similarly, findings for effects of pornography on sexual and relationship dissatisfaction appear tohave been exaggerated in close-ended research that focuses solely on assessing harms and are not replicated in open-ended participant-informed research approaches. Findings for pornography-induced sexual dysfunction are ambiguous and may be interpreted to mean that individuals are receiving access to idiosyncratically arousing content in pornography that is not otherwise available to them in setting in which their sexual function is suboptimal.
Conclusions:This overview of research calls attention to the need for scientific skepticism in evaluating widely shared but scientifically questionable conclusions concerning the supposed negative effects of pornography. Attention to methodological bias, failures to replicate, and recognition of conflicting findings suggest that the science does not support the conclusions with any degree of consistency. At the same time, we do see patients clinically who have significant problems with their or their partner’s use of pornography, and careful, clinically relevant science on the actual role of pornography in these presentations and effective treatment approaches that focus appropriately on causal factors remains to be accomplished.
Biological Bases of Beauty Revisited: The Effect of Symmetry, Averageness, and Sexual Dimorphism on Female Facial Attractiveness Seems Smaller Than We Thought
Jones, A.L.; Jaeger, B. Biological Bases of Beauty Revisited: The Effect of Symmetry, Averageness, and Sexual Dimorphism on Female Facial Attractiveness. Symmetry 2019, 11, 279. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/11/2/279
Abstract: The factors influencing human female facial attractiveness—symmetry, averageness, and sexual dimorphism—have been extensively studied. However, recent studies, using improved methodologies, have called into question their evolutionary utility and links with life history. The current studies use a range of approaches to quantify how important these factors actually are in perceiving attractiveness, through the use of novel statistical analyses and by addressing methodological weaknesses in the literature. Study One examines how manipulations of symmetry, averageness, femininity, and masculinity affect attractiveness using a two-alternative forced choice task, finding that increased masculinity and also femininity decrease attractiveness, compared to unmanipulated faces. Symmetry and averageness yielded a small and large effect, respectively. Study Two utilises a naturalistic ratings paradigm, finding similar effects of averageness and masculinity as Study One but no effects of symmetry and femininity on attractiveness. Study Three applies geometric face measurements of the factors and a random forest machine learning algorithm to predict perceived attractiveness, finding that shape averageness, dimorphism, and skin texture symmetry are useful features capable of relatively accurate predictions, while shape symmetry is uninformative. However, the factors do not explain as much variance in attractiveness as the literature suggests. The implications for future research on attractiveness are discussed.
Keywords: faces; attractiveness; symmetry; machine learning; averageness; dimorphism
Abstract: The factors influencing human female facial attractiveness—symmetry, averageness, and sexual dimorphism—have been extensively studied. However, recent studies, using improved methodologies, have called into question their evolutionary utility and links with life history. The current studies use a range of approaches to quantify how important these factors actually are in perceiving attractiveness, through the use of novel statistical analyses and by addressing methodological weaknesses in the literature. Study One examines how manipulations of symmetry, averageness, femininity, and masculinity affect attractiveness using a two-alternative forced choice task, finding that increased masculinity and also femininity decrease attractiveness, compared to unmanipulated faces. Symmetry and averageness yielded a small and large effect, respectively. Study Two utilises a naturalistic ratings paradigm, finding similar effects of averageness and masculinity as Study One but no effects of symmetry and femininity on attractiveness. Study Three applies geometric face measurements of the factors and a random forest machine learning algorithm to predict perceived attractiveness, finding that shape averageness, dimorphism, and skin texture symmetry are useful features capable of relatively accurate predictions, while shape symmetry is uninformative. However, the factors do not explain as much variance in attractiveness as the literature suggests. The implications for future research on attractiveness are discussed.
Keywords: faces; attractiveness; symmetry; machine learning; averageness; dimorphism
MSM: Relative to a full battery condition, participants were more likely to agree to a hookup in the lowest battery condition; those men also endorsed a greater propensity for sensation seeking
Smartphone Battery Levels and Sexual Decision-Making Among Men Who Have Sex with Men. Alex Lopes, Kaylee Skoda, Cory L. Pedersen. Sexuality & Culture, June 1 2019. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12119-019-09620-8
Abstract: Smartphone-dating and hook-up apps are undeniable factors in the modern landscape of sexuality. In particular, gay and bisexual men have bridged social and societal barriers for connection by using these apps. Despite advantages afforded by such technological advancements, when individuals are faced with a low phone battery, a sense of urgency may be experienced, which can increase risk-taking behaviours to accommodate an impending phone “death”. The purpose of this study was to determine whether a draining smartphone battery would facilitate a greater likelihood of agreeing to a hookup encounter. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three battery life condition groups (5%, 20%, 100%) and were asked how likely they were to agree to a hookup with a simulated potential sexual partner. We discovered that, relative to a full battery condition, participants were more likely to agree to a hookup in the lowest battery condition. Additionally, men who reported a greater likelihood of agreeing to a hookup also endorsed a greater propensity for sensation seeking, regardless of the battery condition. These findings have practical implications for educating smartphone users who utilize dating and hookup apps about how scarcity decision-making and sensation-seeking can impact the ability to practice safe sexual behaviours.
Keywords: Hookups Dating applications MSM Decision-making Smartphones
Abstract: Smartphone-dating and hook-up apps are undeniable factors in the modern landscape of sexuality. In particular, gay and bisexual men have bridged social and societal barriers for connection by using these apps. Despite advantages afforded by such technological advancements, when individuals are faced with a low phone battery, a sense of urgency may be experienced, which can increase risk-taking behaviours to accommodate an impending phone “death”. The purpose of this study was to determine whether a draining smartphone battery would facilitate a greater likelihood of agreeing to a hookup encounter. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three battery life condition groups (5%, 20%, 100%) and were asked how likely they were to agree to a hookup with a simulated potential sexual partner. We discovered that, relative to a full battery condition, participants were more likely to agree to a hookup in the lowest battery condition. Additionally, men who reported a greater likelihood of agreeing to a hookup also endorsed a greater propensity for sensation seeking, regardless of the battery condition. These findings have practical implications for educating smartphone users who utilize dating and hookup apps about how scarcity decision-making and sensation-seeking can impact the ability to practice safe sexual behaviours.
Keywords: Hookups Dating applications MSM Decision-making Smartphones
There are studies in humans and animals revealing that lack of adequate sleep may facilitate sexual arousal, including objectively measured erections
Costa, R. M. (2019). Sleep and Sexual Arousal: A Complex Relation. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 16(6), 946. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2019.03.267
I congratulate Smith and colleagues for their study on the relations of sexual function and sleep quality in older people,1a topic that deserves great attention. Their findings in a large representative English sample are extremely interesting, but also intriguing. Compared with men with high sleep quality, men with moderate sleep quality had greater odds of having erectile difficulties, but men with low sleep quality did not. Moreover, compared with men who sleep 6e8hours, men who sleep>8 hours had greater odds of having difficulties attaining orgasm, but men who sleep<6 hours did not.1Ifwe think that longer and better sleep favors sexual function, as many studies suggest, these are intriguing findings. Smith and colleagues note that the “results indicate that the relationship between sleep problems and sexual dysfunction is not as simplistic as previously suggested (poorer qualitysleep = greater dysfunction)” (p. 431), especially when several confounds are controlled.1
In this letter, I call the attention to an often overlooked phenomenon in the research on the relations between sleep and sexual function. There are studies in humans and animals revealing that lack of adequate sleep may facilitate sexual arousal, including objectively measured erections. After sleep deprivation, men diagnosed with psychogenic erectile dysfunction improved their erections in response to erotica,2 and for both sexes, poorer subjective sleep quality over the past month correlated with self-reports of greater unstimulated sexual arousal, that is, arousal in the absence of external stimuli.3 This occurred especially among those with higher testosterone levels.3 Among men, awakenings during both rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM sleep increased visual attention to pictures of women, as assessed by eye-tracker, but the non-REM sleep awakening also disturbed REM sleep,4 which makes likely that it is the specific inhibition of REM sleep that has enhancing effects on sexual arousal. This is confirmed by research showing that REM sleep deprivation stimulates spontaneous erections and ejaculations in rats.5 The potential of REM sleep deprivation for increasing sexual arousal might be due to increased dopaminergic transmission, and it may also occur in women.3 Shortage of REM sleep is a likely consequence of many sleep disturbances.
Plausibly, in many cases, this effect may be offset by tiredness, difficulties interacting with the partner, psychopathology that develops due to lack of appropriate sleep, and perhaps by lower testosterone levels,3 among other factors. However, its presence might account for the complexity of the relationship between sleep and sexual function, as noted by Smith and colleagues.1
I congratulate Smith and colleagues for their study on the relations of sexual function and sleep quality in older people,1a topic that deserves great attention. Their findings in a large representative English sample are extremely interesting, but also intriguing. Compared with men with high sleep quality, men with moderate sleep quality had greater odds of having erectile difficulties, but men with low sleep quality did not. Moreover, compared with men who sleep 6e8hours, men who sleep>8 hours had greater odds of having difficulties attaining orgasm, but men who sleep<6 hours did not.1Ifwe think that longer and better sleep favors sexual function, as many studies suggest, these are intriguing findings. Smith and colleagues note that the “results indicate that the relationship between sleep problems and sexual dysfunction is not as simplistic as previously suggested (poorer qualitysleep = greater dysfunction)” (p. 431), especially when several confounds are controlled.1
In this letter, I call the attention to an often overlooked phenomenon in the research on the relations between sleep and sexual function. There are studies in humans and animals revealing that lack of adequate sleep may facilitate sexual arousal, including objectively measured erections. After sleep deprivation, men diagnosed with psychogenic erectile dysfunction improved their erections in response to erotica,2 and for both sexes, poorer subjective sleep quality over the past month correlated with self-reports of greater unstimulated sexual arousal, that is, arousal in the absence of external stimuli.3 This occurred especially among those with higher testosterone levels.3 Among men, awakenings during both rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM sleep increased visual attention to pictures of women, as assessed by eye-tracker, but the non-REM sleep awakening also disturbed REM sleep,4 which makes likely that it is the specific inhibition of REM sleep that has enhancing effects on sexual arousal. This is confirmed by research showing that REM sleep deprivation stimulates spontaneous erections and ejaculations in rats.5 The potential of REM sleep deprivation for increasing sexual arousal might be due to increased dopaminergic transmission, and it may also occur in women.3 Shortage of REM sleep is a likely consequence of many sleep disturbances.
Plausibly, in many cases, this effect may be offset by tiredness, difficulties interacting with the partner, psychopathology that develops due to lack of appropriate sleep, and perhaps by lower testosterone levels,3 among other factors. However, its presence might account for the complexity of the relationship between sleep and sexual function, as noted by Smith and colleagues.1
The False Enforcement of Unpopular Norms: The authors argue that people enforce unpopular norms to show that they have complied out of genuine conviction and not because of social pressure
The False Enforcement of Unpopular Norms. Robb Willer, Ko Kuwabara, Michael W. Macy. AJS Volume 115 Number 2 (September 2009): 451–90. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1293/ecb55a2c5194fd1c16532c2c92599c6931fb.pdf
Abstract: Prevailing theory assumes that people enforce norms in order to pressure others to act in ways that they approve. Yet there are numerous examples of “unpopular norms” in which people compel each other to do things that they privately disapprove. While peer sanctioning suggests a ready explanation for why people conform to unpopular norms, it is harder to understand why they would enforce a norm they privately oppose. The authors argue that people enforce unpopular norms to show that they have complied out of genuine conviction and not because of social pressure. They use laboratory experiments to demonstrate this “false enforcement” in the context of a wine tasting and an academic text evaluation. Both studies find that participants who conformed to a norm due to social pressure then falsely enforced the norm by publicly criticizing a lone deviant. A third study shows that enforcement of a norm effectively signals the enforcer’s genuine support for the norm. These results demonstrate the potential for a vicious cycle in which perceived pressures to conform to and falsely enforce an unpopular norm reinforce one another.
Abstract: Prevailing theory assumes that people enforce norms in order to pressure others to act in ways that they approve. Yet there are numerous examples of “unpopular norms” in which people compel each other to do things that they privately disapprove. While peer sanctioning suggests a ready explanation for why people conform to unpopular norms, it is harder to understand why they would enforce a norm they privately oppose. The authors argue that people enforce unpopular norms to show that they have complied out of genuine conviction and not because of social pressure. They use laboratory experiments to demonstrate this “false enforcement” in the context of a wine tasting and an academic text evaluation. Both studies find that participants who conformed to a norm due to social pressure then falsely enforced the norm by publicly criticizing a lone deviant. A third study shows that enforcement of a norm effectively signals the enforcer’s genuine support for the norm. These results demonstrate the potential for a vicious cycle in which perceived pressures to conform to and falsely enforce an unpopular norm reinforce one another.
The adaptive problems humans faced with respect to plants have left their mark on the human mind
How Plants Shape the Mind. Annie E. Wertz. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, June 1 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2019.04.009
Abstract: Plants are easy to overlook in modern environments, but were a fundamental part of human life over evolutionary time. Recent work with infants suggests that the adaptive problems humans faced with respect to plants have left their mark on the human mind.
Abstract: Plants are easy to overlook in modern environments, but were a fundamental part of human life over evolutionary time. Recent work with infants suggests that the adaptive problems humans faced with respect to plants have left their mark on the human mind.
‘Everybody’s doing it’: on the persistence of bad social norms
‘Everybody’s doing it’: on the persistence of bad social norms. David Smerdon, Theo Offerman, Uri Gneezy. Experimental Economics, May 31 2019, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10683-019-09616-z
Abstract: We investigate how information about the preferences of others affects the persistence of ‘bad’ social norms. One view is that bad norms thrive even when people are informed of the preferences of others, since the bad norm is an equilibrium of a coordination game. The other view is based on pluralistic ignorance, in which uncertainty about others’ preferences is crucial. In an experiment, we find clear support for the pluralistic ignorance perspective. In addition, the strength of social interactions is important for a bad norm to persist. These findings help in understanding the causes of such bad norms, and in designing interventions to change them.
Keywords: Social norms Pluralistic ignorance Social interactions Equilibrium selection Conformity
Abstract: We investigate how information about the preferences of others affects the persistence of ‘bad’ social norms. One view is that bad norms thrive even when people are informed of the preferences of others, since the bad norm is an equilibrium of a coordination game. The other view is based on pluralistic ignorance, in which uncertainty about others’ preferences is crucial. In an experiment, we find clear support for the pluralistic ignorance perspective. In addition, the strength of social interactions is important for a bad norm to persist. These findings help in understanding the causes of such bad norms, and in designing interventions to change them.
Keywords: Social norms Pluralistic ignorance Social interactions Equilibrium selection Conformity
Friday, May 31, 2019
fRMI & romantically disillusioning events: Compared to regret‐inducing events, disillusioning events showed greater activation in areas thought pertinent to detail processing and decision making (occipital fusiform & lingual gyrus)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging activation in response to prompts of romantically disillusioning events. Sylvia Niehuis et al. Personal Relationships, May 30 2019. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12272
Abstract: To differentiate romantic disillusionment from similar constructs of dissatisfaction and regret, functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) data obtained when romantically involved individuals (N = 39) were reminded of relationship events representing these emotions were analyzed. Whole‐brain activations suggested disillusionment‐linked processes not observed for dissatisfaction or regret. Compared to dissatisfying events, disillusioning ones showed greater activity in regions pertaining to evaluation, reflection, and reconciling conflicting information (e.g., anterior cingulate cortex). No regions showed significantly more activation for dissatisfying than disillusioning events. Compared to regret‐inducing events, disillusioning events showed greater activation in areas thought pertinent to detail processing and decision making (occipital fusiform and lingual gyrus). Regret‐inducing events activated regions suggesting the planning and thoughts of how one could have acted differently (e.g., prefrontal cortex).
Abstract: To differentiate romantic disillusionment from similar constructs of dissatisfaction and regret, functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) data obtained when romantically involved individuals (N = 39) were reminded of relationship events representing these emotions were analyzed. Whole‐brain activations suggested disillusionment‐linked processes not observed for dissatisfaction or regret. Compared to dissatisfying events, disillusioning ones showed greater activity in regions pertaining to evaluation, reflection, and reconciling conflicting information (e.g., anterior cingulate cortex). No regions showed significantly more activation for dissatisfying than disillusioning events. Compared to regret‐inducing events, disillusioning events showed greater activation in areas thought pertinent to detail processing and decision making (occipital fusiform and lingual gyrus). Regret‐inducing events activated regions suggesting the planning and thoughts of how one could have acted differently (e.g., prefrontal cortex).
The Relationship between Marijuana Use Prior to Sex and Sexual Function in Women: Marijuana appears to improve satisfaction with orgasm
Lynn BK, López JD, Miller C, et al. The Relationship between Marijuana Use Prior to Sex and Sexual Function in Women. Sex Med 2019;7:192-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esxm.2019.01.003
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Scientific research on the effects of marijuana on sexual functioning in women, including libido, arousal, orgasm, and satisfaction, is limited.
AIM: To evaluate women's perceptions of the effect of marijuana use before sexual activity.
METHODS: A cross-sectional design, from March 2016-February 2017, within a single, academic, obstetrics and gynecology practice, was performed. Patients were given a questionnaire at their visit and asked to complete it anonymously and place it in a locked box after their visit.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was satisfaction in the sexual domains of drive, orgasm, lubrication, dyspareunia, and overall sexual experience. The secondary outcome was the effect of the frequency of marijuana use on satisfaction.
RESULTS: Of the 373 participants, 34.0% (n = 127) reported having used marijuana before sexual activity. Most women reported increases in sex drive, improvement in orgasm, decrease in pain, but no change in lubrication. After adjusting for race, women who reported marijuana use before sexual activity had 2.13 higher odds of reporting satisfactory orgasms (adjusted odds ratio = 2.13; 95% CI = 1.05, 4.35) than women who reported no marijuana use. After adjusting for race and age, women with frequent marijuana use, regardless of use before sex or not, had 2.10 times higher odds of reporting satisfactory orgasms than those with infrequent marijuana use (adjusted odds ratio = 2.10; 95% CI = 1.01-4.44).
CONCLUSION: Marijuana appears to improve satisfaction with orgasm. A better understanding of the role of the endocannabinoid system in women is important, because there is a paucity of literature, and it could help lead to development of treatments for female sexual dysfunction.
KEYWORDS: Epidemiology; Female Sexual Response; Health Behavior and Attitudes; Women’s Sexuality
Introduction
Over the last decade, marijuana use and the legalization of marijuana, medically and recreationally, has continued to increase in the United States.1 The internet is rife with claims of the beneficial effects of marijuana on several aspects of sexual function including libido, arousal, and orgasm. However, our scientific research on the effects of marijuana on sexual functioning is limited. Recently Palamar et al2 evaluated self-reported sexual effects of marijuana, ecstasy, and alcohol use in a small cohort of men and women aged 18–25. They found that the majority of marijuana users reported an increase in sexual enjoyment and orgasm intensity, as well as either an increase or no change in desire.2
Endocannabinoids, which are structurally similar to marijuana, are known to help regulate sexual function.3 The cannabinoid receptor, discovered in the 1990s, has been mapped to several areas of the brain that play a role in sexual function.3 Cannabinoids and endocannabinoids interact with the hormones and neurotransmitters that affect sexual behavior. Although these interactions have not been clearly illuminated, some studies in rodents have helped to clarify the relationship between cannabinoids and the hormones and neurotransmitters that affect sexual behavior.4 Although there is less data on human subjects, some studies have measured patient’s perceptions of the effects of marijuana on sexual function. Studies have reported an increase in desire and improvement in the quality of orgasm.5 Most recently, Klein et al6 evaluated the correlation between serum levels of 2 endogenous endocannabinoids and found a significant negative correlation between endocannabinoids and both physiological and subjective arousal in women. Sumnall et al7 reported that drugs such as cannabis and ecstasy were more frequently taken to improve the sexual experience than was alcohol.
The primary aim of this study was to determine how women perceive the sexual experience, specifically overall sexual satisfaction, sex drive, orgasm, dyspareunia, and lubrication, when using marijuana before sex. The magnitude of the change was also evaluated. The secondary aim sought to understand the effect of the frequency of marijuana use, regardless of marijuana use before sex, on satisfaction across the different sexual function domains.
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Scientific research on the effects of marijuana on sexual functioning in women, including libido, arousal, orgasm, and satisfaction, is limited.
AIM: To evaluate women's perceptions of the effect of marijuana use before sexual activity.
METHODS: A cross-sectional design, from March 2016-February 2017, within a single, academic, obstetrics and gynecology practice, was performed. Patients were given a questionnaire at their visit and asked to complete it anonymously and place it in a locked box after their visit.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was satisfaction in the sexual domains of drive, orgasm, lubrication, dyspareunia, and overall sexual experience. The secondary outcome was the effect of the frequency of marijuana use on satisfaction.
RESULTS: Of the 373 participants, 34.0% (n = 127) reported having used marijuana before sexual activity. Most women reported increases in sex drive, improvement in orgasm, decrease in pain, but no change in lubrication. After adjusting for race, women who reported marijuana use before sexual activity had 2.13 higher odds of reporting satisfactory orgasms (adjusted odds ratio = 2.13; 95% CI = 1.05, 4.35) than women who reported no marijuana use. After adjusting for race and age, women with frequent marijuana use, regardless of use before sex or not, had 2.10 times higher odds of reporting satisfactory orgasms than those with infrequent marijuana use (adjusted odds ratio = 2.10; 95% CI = 1.01-4.44).
CONCLUSION: Marijuana appears to improve satisfaction with orgasm. A better understanding of the role of the endocannabinoid system in women is important, because there is a paucity of literature, and it could help lead to development of treatments for female sexual dysfunction.
KEYWORDS: Epidemiology; Female Sexual Response; Health Behavior and Attitudes; Women’s Sexuality
Introduction
Over the last decade, marijuana use and the legalization of marijuana, medically and recreationally, has continued to increase in the United States.1 The internet is rife with claims of the beneficial effects of marijuana on several aspects of sexual function including libido, arousal, and orgasm. However, our scientific research on the effects of marijuana on sexual functioning is limited. Recently Palamar et al2 evaluated self-reported sexual effects of marijuana, ecstasy, and alcohol use in a small cohort of men and women aged 18–25. They found that the majority of marijuana users reported an increase in sexual enjoyment and orgasm intensity, as well as either an increase or no change in desire.2
Endocannabinoids, which are structurally similar to marijuana, are known to help regulate sexual function.3 The cannabinoid receptor, discovered in the 1990s, has been mapped to several areas of the brain that play a role in sexual function.3 Cannabinoids and endocannabinoids interact with the hormones and neurotransmitters that affect sexual behavior. Although these interactions have not been clearly illuminated, some studies in rodents have helped to clarify the relationship between cannabinoids and the hormones and neurotransmitters that affect sexual behavior.4 Although there is less data on human subjects, some studies have measured patient’s perceptions of the effects of marijuana on sexual function. Studies have reported an increase in desire and improvement in the quality of orgasm.5 Most recently, Klein et al6 evaluated the correlation between serum levels of 2 endogenous endocannabinoids and found a significant negative correlation between endocannabinoids and both physiological and subjective arousal in women. Sumnall et al7 reported that drugs such as cannabis and ecstasy were more frequently taken to improve the sexual experience than was alcohol.
The primary aim of this study was to determine how women perceive the sexual experience, specifically overall sexual satisfaction, sex drive, orgasm, dyspareunia, and lubrication, when using marijuana before sex. The magnitude of the change was also evaluated. The secondary aim sought to understand the effect of the frequency of marijuana use, regardless of marijuana use before sex, on satisfaction across the different sexual function domains.
GDPR After One Year: Costs and Unintended Consequences. By Alec Stapp
GDPR After One Year: Costs and Unintended Consequences. Alec Stapp. May 24 2019. https://truthonthemarket.com/2019/05/24/gdpr-after-one-year-costs-and-unintended-consequences/
Excerpts (full links in the original article):
GDPR cases and fines
Here is the latest data on cases and fines released by the European Data Protection Board (https://edpb.europa.eu/news/news/2019/1-year-gdpr-taking-stock_en):
€55,955,871 in fines
€50 million of which was a single fine on Google
281,088 total cases
144,376 complaints
89,271 data breach notifications
47,441 other
37.0% ongoing
62.9% closed
0.1% appealed
Compliance costs are astronomical
Prior to GDPR going into effect, it was estimated that total GDPR compliance costs for US firms with more than 500 employees “could reach $150 billion.” (Fortune)
Another estimate from the same time said 75,000 Data Protection Officers would need to be hired for compliance. (IAPP)
As of March 20, 2019, 1,129 US news sites are still unavailable in the EU due to GDPR. (Joseph O’Connor)
Microsoft had 1,600 engineers working on compliance. (Microsoft)
During a Senate hearing, Keith Enright, Google’s chief privacy officer, estimated that the company spent “hundreds of years of human time” to comply with the new privacy rules. (Quartz)
However, French authorities ultimately decided Google’s compliance efforts were insufficient: “France fines Google nearly $57 million for first major violation of new European privacy regime” (The Washington Post)
“About 220,000 name tags will be removed in Vienna by the end of [2018], the city’s housing authority said. Officials fear that they could otherwise be fined up to $23 million, or about $1,150 per name.” (The Washington Post)
Other reports claim that GDPR does not require removing name tags from buildings, but it is telling that ambiguity in the law caused the Vienna housing authority to believe it did (derStandard)
Unseen costs of foregone investment & research
Startups: One study estimated that venture capital invested in EU startups fell by as much as 50 percent due to GDPR implementation. (NBER)
Mergers and acquisitions: “55% of respondents said they had worked on deals that fell apart because of concerns about a target company’s data protection policies and compliance with GDPR” (WSJ)
Scientific research: “[B]iomedical researchers fear that the EU’s new General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) will make it harder to share information across borders or outside their original research context.” (Politico)
GDPR has been the death knell for small and medium-sized businesses
SMBs have left the EU market in droves (or shut down entirely). Here is a partial list:
Brent Ozar, IT consulting services
CoinTouch, peer-to-peer cryptocurrency exchange
Drawbridge, cross-device identity service
FamilyTreeDNA, free and public genetic tools
Mitosearch
Ysearch
Gravity Interactive, video game developer
Ragnarok Online
Dragon Saga
Hitman: Absolution, video game developed by IO Interactive
Klout, social reputation service by Lithium
Loadout, video game developed by Edge of Reality
Monal, XMPP chat app
MotoSport, powersports retailer
Parity, know-your-customer service for initial coin offerings (ICOs)
Payver, dashcam app
Pottery Barn, housewares retailer
Seznam, social network for students
Steel Root, cybersecurity and IT services
StreetLend, tool sharing platform for neighbors
Super Monday Night Combat (SMNC), video game developed by Uber Entertainment
Tunngle, video game VPN
Unroll.me, inbox management app
Verve, mobile programmatic advertising
Williams-Sonoma, housewares retailer
Excerpts (full links in the original article):
GDPR cases and fines
Here is the latest data on cases and fines released by the European Data Protection Board (https://edpb.europa.eu/news/news/2019/1-year-gdpr-taking-stock_en):
€55,955,871 in fines
€50 million of which was a single fine on Google
281,088 total cases
144,376 complaints
89,271 data breach notifications
47,441 other
37.0% ongoing
62.9% closed
0.1% appealed
Compliance costs are astronomical
Prior to GDPR going into effect, it was estimated that total GDPR compliance costs for US firms with more than 500 employees “could reach $150 billion.” (Fortune)
Another estimate from the same time said 75,000 Data Protection Officers would need to be hired for compliance. (IAPP)
As of March 20, 2019, 1,129 US news sites are still unavailable in the EU due to GDPR. (Joseph O’Connor)
Microsoft had 1,600 engineers working on compliance. (Microsoft)
During a Senate hearing, Keith Enright, Google’s chief privacy officer, estimated that the company spent “hundreds of years of human time” to comply with the new privacy rules. (Quartz)
However, French authorities ultimately decided Google’s compliance efforts were insufficient: “France fines Google nearly $57 million for first major violation of new European privacy regime” (The Washington Post)
“About 220,000 name tags will be removed in Vienna by the end of [2018], the city’s housing authority said. Officials fear that they could otherwise be fined up to $23 million, or about $1,150 per name.” (The Washington Post)
Other reports claim that GDPR does not require removing name tags from buildings, but it is telling that ambiguity in the law caused the Vienna housing authority to believe it did (derStandard)
Unseen costs of foregone investment & research
Startups: One study estimated that venture capital invested in EU startups fell by as much as 50 percent due to GDPR implementation. (NBER)
Mergers and acquisitions: “55% of respondents said they had worked on deals that fell apart because of concerns about a target company’s data protection policies and compliance with GDPR” (WSJ)
Scientific research: “[B]iomedical researchers fear that the EU’s new General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) will make it harder to share information across borders or outside their original research context.” (Politico)
GDPR has been the death knell for small and medium-sized businesses
SMBs have left the EU market in droves (or shut down entirely). Here is a partial list:
Brent Ozar, IT consulting services
CoinTouch, peer-to-peer cryptocurrency exchange
Drawbridge, cross-device identity service
FamilyTreeDNA, free and public genetic tools
Mitosearch
Ysearch
Gravity Interactive, video game developer
Ragnarok Online
Dragon Saga
Hitman: Absolution, video game developed by IO Interactive
Klout, social reputation service by Lithium
Loadout, video game developed by Edge of Reality
Monal, XMPP chat app
MotoSport, powersports retailer
Parity, know-your-customer service for initial coin offerings (ICOs)
Payver, dashcam app
Pottery Barn, housewares retailer
Seznam, social network for students
Steel Root, cybersecurity and IT services
StreetLend, tool sharing platform for neighbors
Super Monday Night Combat (SMNC), video game developed by Uber Entertainment
Tunngle, video game VPN
Unroll.me, inbox management app
Verve, mobile programmatic advertising
Williams-Sonoma, housewares retailer
Thursday, May 30, 2019
The majority (94.5%) of women indicated having masturbated at least once in their life; reported masturbating 2 or 3 times a week (26.8%) or once (26.3%); it is not “a partner substitute”, but rather is a stress coping & relaxation strategy
Masturbatory Behavior in a Population Sample of German Women. Andrea Burri, Ana Carvalheira. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, May 30 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2019.04.015
Abstract
Background: Human masturbation is and has been a very heatedly and controversially discussed topic in human sexuality. Studies investigating aspects of human masturbatory behavior and female sexual pleasure remain scarce. This lack of knowledge opens the door to further controversies and misconceptions.
Aim: To conduct an explorative study on female masturbatory behavior to gain more insight into this nonreproductive sexual behavior and provide an empiric basis for future research.
Methods: A total of 425 German women (mean age 26.6 years), 61.4% of whom were in a committed relationship, completed a comprehensive 76-item online survey consisting of study-specific, self-constructed questions and validated and standardized questionnaires.
Main Outcome Measure: Correlation and comparative analyses were performed. Results are presented numerically as means and percentages.
Results: The majority (94.5%) of women indicated having masturbated at least once in their life, with a mean age at first masturbation of 14 years. 85.9% of women described masturbation as “genital self-stimulation until reaching orgasm.” The majority of women reported masturbating 2 or 3 times a week (26.8%) or once a week (26.3%). Factors independently associated with masturbation frequency were relationship status, orgasm frequency, openness to new experience, and body acceptance. Almost all women (91.5%) reported masturbating also when in a relationship. For the 5.5% of women who had never engaged in autoerotic stimulation, the 2 main reasons were “I hardly every feel sexual desire” and “sex is a partner-only thing.” 7.6% reported never experiencing an orgasm during masturbation, whereas 50.3% indicated that they always reached orgasm during autostimulation. The reasons cited for engaging in masturbation were manifold, ranging from sexual desire to relaxation and stress reduction. The most common fantasy included the partner; however, 20.7% fantasized about being “defenseless,” and 8.7% thought about a “disturbing” scenario that they chose not to elaborate further.
Clinical Implications: For many women, masturbation does not represent “a partner substitute” to seek sexual pleasure, but rather is a stress coping and relaxation strategy.
Strengths & Limitations: This is one of the very first studies to provide more in-depth insight into a variety of aspects related to female masturbation. The representativeness of the data is limited to this particular sample of German women.
Conclusion: Our findings highlight the huge diversity in terms of masturbation frequency, motivations, styles, and preferences that can be observed in this particular population sample of German women.
Abstract
Background: Human masturbation is and has been a very heatedly and controversially discussed topic in human sexuality. Studies investigating aspects of human masturbatory behavior and female sexual pleasure remain scarce. This lack of knowledge opens the door to further controversies and misconceptions.
Aim: To conduct an explorative study on female masturbatory behavior to gain more insight into this nonreproductive sexual behavior and provide an empiric basis for future research.
Methods: A total of 425 German women (mean age 26.6 years), 61.4% of whom were in a committed relationship, completed a comprehensive 76-item online survey consisting of study-specific, self-constructed questions and validated and standardized questionnaires.
Main Outcome Measure: Correlation and comparative analyses were performed. Results are presented numerically as means and percentages.
Results: The majority (94.5%) of women indicated having masturbated at least once in their life, with a mean age at first masturbation of 14 years. 85.9% of women described masturbation as “genital self-stimulation until reaching orgasm.” The majority of women reported masturbating 2 or 3 times a week (26.8%) or once a week (26.3%). Factors independently associated with masturbation frequency were relationship status, orgasm frequency, openness to new experience, and body acceptance. Almost all women (91.5%) reported masturbating also when in a relationship. For the 5.5% of women who had never engaged in autoerotic stimulation, the 2 main reasons were “I hardly every feel sexual desire” and “sex is a partner-only thing.” 7.6% reported never experiencing an orgasm during masturbation, whereas 50.3% indicated that they always reached orgasm during autostimulation. The reasons cited for engaging in masturbation were manifold, ranging from sexual desire to relaxation and stress reduction. The most common fantasy included the partner; however, 20.7% fantasized about being “defenseless,” and 8.7% thought about a “disturbing” scenario that they chose not to elaborate further.
Clinical Implications: For many women, masturbation does not represent “a partner substitute” to seek sexual pleasure, but rather is a stress coping and relaxation strategy.
Strengths & Limitations: This is one of the very first studies to provide more in-depth insight into a variety of aspects related to female masturbation. The representativeness of the data is limited to this particular sample of German women.
Conclusion: Our findings highlight the huge diversity in terms of masturbation frequency, motivations, styles, and preferences that can be observed in this particular population sample of German women.
Valkyries: Was Gender Equality High in the Scandinavian Periphery since Viking Times? Evidence from Enamel Hypoplasia and Height Ratios
Valkyries: Was Gender Equality High in the Scandinavian Periphery since Viking Times? Evidence from Enamel Hypoplasia and Height Ratios. Laura Maravall Buckwalter. Economics & Human Biology, May 30 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2019.05.007
Highlights
• Frequency of linear enamel hypoplasia is used as an indicator of gender equality.
• This indicator allows us to measure the health of men and women over two millennia.
• Scandinavian women had better relative values already during the Viking era.
• Medieval Scandinavian women were also healthier than contemporary women elsewhere.
Abstract: Scandinavian countries currently have very high values of female autonomy. Was this already the case in Viking Times? In this study, we trace the roots of gender equality in the Scandinavian periphery over the past two millennia. We evaluate and recommend a new measure of early gender equality: relative enamel hypoplasia values of males and females. This new indicator allows us to trace relative health and nutritional equality, using archaeological evidence. We find that Scandinavian women in the rural periphery already had relatively good health and nutritional values during the Viking era and the medieval period thereafter. The corresponding value is 0.8 equality advantage for Scandinavian women, whereas in the rest of Europe most values fall in a band around 1.2 ratio units. This suggests that the currently high gender equality had a precedence during the Middle Ages.
Highlights
• Frequency of linear enamel hypoplasia is used as an indicator of gender equality.
• This indicator allows us to measure the health of men and women over two millennia.
• Scandinavian women had better relative values already during the Viking era.
• Medieval Scandinavian women were also healthier than contemporary women elsewhere.
Abstract: Scandinavian countries currently have very high values of female autonomy. Was this already the case in Viking Times? In this study, we trace the roots of gender equality in the Scandinavian periphery over the past two millennia. We evaluate and recommend a new measure of early gender equality: relative enamel hypoplasia values of males and females. This new indicator allows us to trace relative health and nutritional equality, using archaeological evidence. We find that Scandinavian women in the rural periphery already had relatively good health and nutritional values during the Viking era and the medieval period thereafter. The corresponding value is 0.8 equality advantage for Scandinavian women, whereas in the rest of Europe most values fall in a band around 1.2 ratio units. This suggests that the currently high gender equality had a precedence during the Middle Ages.
Self‐employed males are more likely to be attractive & more attractive self‐employed males have higher incomes; differences in income from IQ declined as attractiveness increases; no differences for females
In the eye of the beholder? The returns to beauty and IQ for the self‐employed. Pankaj C. Patel, Marcus T. Wolfe. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, May 24 2019. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1323
Research summary: Using a two study approach, we examine the relationship between attractiveness and key aspects of self‐employment. In Study 1, in which individuals rated the attractiveness of participants at the beginning of the interview, our results indicate that self‐employed males are more likely to be attractive and that more attractive self‐employed males have higher incomes. In Study 2, our findings indicate that at low levels of attractiveness, higher IQ self‐employed males have higher incomes in 1974; however, differences in income from IQ declined as attractiveness increases. We do not find differences for either outcome for females in either study.
Managerial summary: This research investigates the relationship between attractiveness and self‐employment. The results indicate that self‐employed males are more likely to be considered attractive than their female counterparts, and that attractive self‐employed males have higher incomes than self‐employed males who were not considered attractive. Additionally, our results reveal that IQ is positively associated with income for less attractive self‐employed males, however this relationship decreases in strength as attractiveness increases. Interestingly, our results do not indicate that attractiveness influences either the likelihood of self‐employment, or performance within self‐employment, for females. Our findings highlight the importance that attractiveness can play within the self‐employment process, as well as the relevance of considering the role that social norms regarding gender might have in determining who pursues, and is successful in, self‐employment.
Research summary: Using a two study approach, we examine the relationship between attractiveness and key aspects of self‐employment. In Study 1, in which individuals rated the attractiveness of participants at the beginning of the interview, our results indicate that self‐employed males are more likely to be attractive and that more attractive self‐employed males have higher incomes. In Study 2, our findings indicate that at low levels of attractiveness, higher IQ self‐employed males have higher incomes in 1974; however, differences in income from IQ declined as attractiveness increases. We do not find differences for either outcome for females in either study.
Managerial summary: This research investigates the relationship between attractiveness and self‐employment. The results indicate that self‐employed males are more likely to be considered attractive than their female counterparts, and that attractive self‐employed males have higher incomes than self‐employed males who were not considered attractive. Additionally, our results reveal that IQ is positively associated with income for less attractive self‐employed males, however this relationship decreases in strength as attractiveness increases. Interestingly, our results do not indicate that attractiveness influences either the likelihood of self‐employment, or performance within self‐employment, for females. Our findings highlight the importance that attractiveness can play within the self‐employment process, as well as the relevance of considering the role that social norms regarding gender might have in determining who pursues, and is successful in, self‐employment.
Reworking Trauma through BDSM: Sadomasochistic reenactments of lived trauma, informed by queer-of-color critique, feminist performance studies, and psychoanalysis, may reconfigure such trauma
Reworking Trauma through BDSM. Corie Hammers. Signs, Journal of Women in Culture and Society, Volume 44, Number 2 | Winter 2019. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/699370
Abstract: As part of a much larger ethnographic study of lesbian/queer sex publics, this essay focuses on a particular erotic practice—sadomasochistic reenactments of lived trauma. Informed by queer-of-color critique, feminist performance studies, and psychoanalysis, this essay explores the necessary queer conditions enabling such returns, by which I mean the reenacting through BDSM of one’s own lived trauma in order to reconfigure it. This queerness, as an embodied erotics fed by durational—as opposed to impersonal and anonymous—ties, rides on the relational. That is, it is our fleshy entanglements and shared dependencies that enable these returns, returns that refuse and reconfigure lived trauma. The site of lesbian/queer sex publics thus offers critical reworkings, somatically generating as it does alternatively embodied futures.
Abstract: As part of a much larger ethnographic study of lesbian/queer sex publics, this essay focuses on a particular erotic practice—sadomasochistic reenactments of lived trauma. Informed by queer-of-color critique, feminist performance studies, and psychoanalysis, this essay explores the necessary queer conditions enabling such returns, by which I mean the reenacting through BDSM of one’s own lived trauma in order to reconfigure it. This queerness, as an embodied erotics fed by durational—as opposed to impersonal and anonymous—ties, rides on the relational. That is, it is our fleshy entanglements and shared dependencies that enable these returns, returns that refuse and reconfigure lived trauma. The site of lesbian/queer sex publics thus offers critical reworkings, somatically generating as it does alternatively embodied futures.
Visual Attention to Sexual Stimuli in Mostly Heterosexuals: Differences between mostly and exclusively heterosexual profiles in men depends on a pattern of response that was found to be mediated by reduced disgust
Visual Attention to Sexual Stimuli in Mostly Heterosexuals. James S. Morandini. Archives of Sexual Behavior, May 29 2019. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-019-1419-4
Abstract: Individuals who report mostly heterosexual orientations (i.e., mostly sexually attracted to the opposite sex, but occasionally attracted to the same sex) outnumber all other non-heterosexual individuals combined. The present study examined whether mostly heterosexual men and women view same- and other-sex sexual stimuli differently than exclusively heterosexual men and women. A novel eye-tracking paradigm was used with 162 mostly and exclusively heterosexual men and women. Compared to exclusively heterosexual men, mostly heterosexual men demonstrated greater attention to sexually explicit features (i.e., genital regions and genital contact regions) of solo male and male–male erotic stimuli, while demonstrating equivalent attention to sexually explicit features of solo female and female–female erotic stimuli. Mediation analyses suggested that differences between mostly and exclusively heterosexual profiles in men could be explained by mostly heterosexual men’s increased sexual attraction to solo male erotica, and their increased sexual attraction and reduced disgust to the male–male erotica. No comparable differences in attention were observed between mostly and exclusively heterosexual women—although mostly heterosexual women did demonstrate greater fixation on visual erotica overall—a pattern of response that was found to be mediated by reduced disgust.
Keywords: Mostly heterosexual Sexual orientation Disgust Visual attention Sex differences
Abstract: Individuals who report mostly heterosexual orientations (i.e., mostly sexually attracted to the opposite sex, but occasionally attracted to the same sex) outnumber all other non-heterosexual individuals combined. The present study examined whether mostly heterosexual men and women view same- and other-sex sexual stimuli differently than exclusively heterosexual men and women. A novel eye-tracking paradigm was used with 162 mostly and exclusively heterosexual men and women. Compared to exclusively heterosexual men, mostly heterosexual men demonstrated greater attention to sexually explicit features (i.e., genital regions and genital contact regions) of solo male and male–male erotic stimuli, while demonstrating equivalent attention to sexually explicit features of solo female and female–female erotic stimuli. Mediation analyses suggested that differences between mostly and exclusively heterosexual profiles in men could be explained by mostly heterosexual men’s increased sexual attraction to solo male erotica, and their increased sexual attraction and reduced disgust to the male–male erotica. No comparable differences in attention were observed between mostly and exclusively heterosexual women—although mostly heterosexual women did demonstrate greater fixation on visual erotica overall—a pattern of response that was found to be mediated by reduced disgust.
Keywords: Mostly heterosexual Sexual orientation Disgust Visual attention Sex differences
There is a tendency to willfully & actively forget details about their own moral transgressions but not about their own morally praiseworthy deeds; when not forgotten, people foster a perception of moral improvement over time
Moral Memories and the Belief in the Good Self. Matthew L. Stanley, Felipe De Brigard. Current Directions in Psychological Science, May 29, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419847990
Abstract: Most people believe they are morally good, and this belief plays an integral role in constructions of personal identity. Yet people commit moral transgressions with surprising frequency in everyday life. In this article, we characterize two mechanisms involving autobiographical memory that are utilized to foster a belief in a morally good self in the present—despite frequent and repeated immoral behavior. First, there is a tendency for people to willfully and actively forget details about their own moral transgressions but not about their own morally praiseworthy deeds. Second, when past moral transgressions are not forgotten, people strategically compare their more recent unethical behaviors with their more distant unethical behaviors to foster a perception of personal moral improvement over time. This, in turn, helps to portray the current self favorably. These two complementary mechanisms help to explain pervasive inconsistencies between people’s personal beliefs about their own moral goodness and the frequency with which they behave immorally.
Keywords: ethics, moral, autobiographical memory, self-enhancement, identity
Abstract: Most people believe they are morally good, and this belief plays an integral role in constructions of personal identity. Yet people commit moral transgressions with surprising frequency in everyday life. In this article, we characterize two mechanisms involving autobiographical memory that are utilized to foster a belief in a morally good self in the present—despite frequent and repeated immoral behavior. First, there is a tendency for people to willfully and actively forget details about their own moral transgressions but not about their own morally praiseworthy deeds. Second, when past moral transgressions are not forgotten, people strategically compare their more recent unethical behaviors with their more distant unethical behaviors to foster a perception of personal moral improvement over time. This, in turn, helps to portray the current self favorably. These two complementary mechanisms help to explain pervasive inconsistencies between people’s personal beliefs about their own moral goodness and the frequency with which they behave immorally.
Keywords: ethics, moral, autobiographical memory, self-enhancement, identity
Sex differences of political interest: At age 15, there is already a gender gap of 20 pct points in the probability of respondents reporting being politically interested; in the following 10 years the gap grows by 10 additional pct points
Tracing the Gender Gap in Political Interest Over the Life Span: A Panel Analysis. Marta Fraile, Irene Sánchez‐Vítores. Political Psychology, May 29 2019. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12600
Abstract: Despite recent advances in gender equality in political representation and the availability of resources, this article shows that there is a persistent gender gap in declared political interest over the life cycle. Using evidence from the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS), we track the gender gap through the life span of citizens. At age 15, there is already a substantial gender gap of 20 percentage points in the probability of respondents reporting being politically interested, pointing to gendered socialization processes as the key explanation for such differences. In the following 10 years, as people develop into adults and unravel their political orientations, the extent of the gender gap continues to grow by about 10 additional percentage points. Following these formative years, attitudes crystallize and so does the gender gap, remaining at the same size (around 30 percentage points of difference between women and men) over the life course. These findings suggest that the development of gender roles during early childhood is a crucial phase in the source of the gender gap, deserving further attention from scholars.
Abstract: Despite recent advances in gender equality in political representation and the availability of resources, this article shows that there is a persistent gender gap in declared political interest over the life cycle. Using evidence from the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS), we track the gender gap through the life span of citizens. At age 15, there is already a substantial gender gap of 20 percentage points in the probability of respondents reporting being politically interested, pointing to gendered socialization processes as the key explanation for such differences. In the following 10 years, as people develop into adults and unravel their political orientations, the extent of the gender gap continues to grow by about 10 additional percentage points. Following these formative years, attitudes crystallize and so does the gender gap, remaining at the same size (around 30 percentage points of difference between women and men) over the life course. These findings suggest that the development of gender roles during early childhood is a crucial phase in the source of the gender gap, deserving further attention from scholars.
Wednesday, May 29, 2019
Some people share knowledge online, often without tangible compensation. Who does this, when, and why? People use behavioral displays to provide observers with useful information about traits in exchange for fitness benefits
The quality of online knowledge sharing signals general intelligence. Christian N.Yoder, Scott A.Reid. Personality and Individual Differences. Volume 148, 1 October 2019, Pages 90-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.013
Abstract: Some people share knowledge online, often without tangible compensation. Who does this, when, and why? According to costly signaling theory people use behavioral displays to provide observers with useful information about traits or states in exchange for fitness benefits. We tested whether individuals higher in general intelligence, g, provided better quality contributions to an information pool under high than low identifiability, and whether observers could infer signaler g from contribution quality. Using a putative online wiki (N = 98) we found that as individuals' scores on Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM) increased, participants were judged to have written better quality articles, but only when identifiable and not when anonymous. Further, the effect of RPM scores on inferred intelligence was mediated by article quality, but only when signalers were identifiable. Consistent with costly signaling theory, signalers are extrinsically motivated and observers act as “naive psychometricians.” We discuss the implications for understanding online information pools and altruism.
Abstract: Some people share knowledge online, often without tangible compensation. Who does this, when, and why? According to costly signaling theory people use behavioral displays to provide observers with useful information about traits or states in exchange for fitness benefits. We tested whether individuals higher in general intelligence, g, provided better quality contributions to an information pool under high than low identifiability, and whether observers could infer signaler g from contribution quality. Using a putative online wiki (N = 98) we found that as individuals' scores on Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM) increased, participants were judged to have written better quality articles, but only when identifiable and not when anonymous. Further, the effect of RPM scores on inferred intelligence was mediated by article quality, but only when signalers were identifiable. Consistent with costly signaling theory, signalers are extrinsically motivated and observers act as “naive psychometricians.” We discuss the implications for understanding online information pools and altruism.
Sexuality and sexism: Differences in ambivalent sexism across gender and sexual identity
Sexuality and sexism: Differences in ambivalent sexism across gender and sexual identity. Lucy J.Cowie, Lara M.Greaves, Chris G.Sibley. Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 148, 1 October 2019, Pages 85-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.023
Abstract: Heterosexual intimacy is theorised to play a key role in Ambivalent Sexism, yet gay, lesbian, and bisexual people's levels of Hostile and Benevolent Sexism have not been previously examined. This paper draws upon data from the national probability New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study (N = 18,266) to examine levels of Hostile and Benevolent sexism across gender (men and women) and sexual identity (gay/lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual individuals). Overall, we found that men compared to women, and heterosexuals compared to lesbian/gay and bisexuals, had significantly higher Hostile and Benevolent Sexism than other groups. The interaction of gender and sexual identity was significant for Benevolent, but not Hostile, Sexism. Gay men had the lowest levels of Benevolent Sexism, with bisexual men scoring between gay and heterosexual men. Heterosexual women were higher in Benevolent Sexism than lesbian and bisexual women. These findings lend support to the notion that heterosexual intimacy is an important driver sustaining Benevolent Sexism.
Abstract: Heterosexual intimacy is theorised to play a key role in Ambivalent Sexism, yet gay, lesbian, and bisexual people's levels of Hostile and Benevolent Sexism have not been previously examined. This paper draws upon data from the national probability New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study (N = 18,266) to examine levels of Hostile and Benevolent sexism across gender (men and women) and sexual identity (gay/lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual individuals). Overall, we found that men compared to women, and heterosexuals compared to lesbian/gay and bisexuals, had significantly higher Hostile and Benevolent Sexism than other groups. The interaction of gender and sexual identity was significant for Benevolent, but not Hostile, Sexism. Gay men had the lowest levels of Benevolent Sexism, with bisexual men scoring between gay and heterosexual men. Heterosexual women were higher in Benevolent Sexism than lesbian and bisexual women. These findings lend support to the notion that heterosexual intimacy is an important driver sustaining Benevolent Sexism.
Gossip and the Reasons Why We and Individuals With “Dark” Personalities Talk About Others: Even dark personalities appear to use gossip to tune their picture of other humans and themselves and not to harm others
Better Than Its Reputation? Gossip and the Reasons Why We and Individuals With “Dark” Personalities Talk About Others. Freda-Marie Hartung*, Constanze Krohn and Marie Pirschtat. Front. Psychol., May 29 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01162
Abstract: Gossip is an ubiquitous phenomenon. Hearing information about others serves important social functions such as learning without direct interaction and observation. Despite important social functions gossip has a rather negative reputation. Therefore, the present online study focuses on the reasons why people gossip and how these reasons are related to personality (i.e., dark triad) and situational settings. Six distinct motives were identified that underlie gossip behavior: information validation, information gathering, relationship building, protection, social enjoyment, and negative influence. The most important motive was validating information about the gossip target followed by the motive to acquire new information about the gossip target. The least important motive was harming the gossip target. The motivational pattern was highly similar between private and work context. Interestingly, the importance of motives mainly depends on the gossiper's narcissism both in work and in private settings. The findings suggest that the negative reputation of gossip is not justified. In fact, even “dark” personalities appear to use gossip to tune their picture of other humans and themselves and not to harm others.
Introduction
Eavesdropping in public settings reveals that people devote a substantial part of their conversations to gossip (e.g., Levin and Arluke, 1985; Dunbar et al., 1997). Accordingly, important social functions have been postulated for gossip in science (e.g., Foster, 2004). Despite these important functions, gossip has a rather bad reputation since it is perceived as inherently malicious harming people and society (e.g., Farley, 2011; Hartung and Renner, 2013; Peters and Kashima, 2013). Whether behavior can be judged as good or bad depends, at least in part, on the intention of the individuals engaging in that behavior. Therefore, the present study aims to examine whether the bad reputation of gossip is justified by examining reasons to gossip. In addition, we examine the reasons of individuals scoring high on the dark triad personality traits (i.e., narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy) as they are known to ignore commonly accepted norms and to act selfishly (e.g., O‘Boyle et al., 2012; Muris et al., 2017). More specifically, we investigate whether individuals scoring high on the dark triad personality traits are more ready to use gossip in order to harm others and to serve themselves, thereby, contributing to the negative reputation of gossip.
Gossip refers to the exchange of information about characteristics and behaviors of an absent person (Dunbar, 2004b; Foster, 2004; Peters and Kashima, 2015). From an anthropological perspective, it has been argued that human language primarily evolved to exchange social information in order to deal with complex social situations (Dunbar, 1998, 2004a; Barrett et al., 2002), and that we, therefore, preferentially attend to social information (e.g., Mesoudi et al., 2006). Accordingly, two thirds of adult conversations in public settings involve gossip (e.g., Levin and Arluke, 1985; Dunbar et al., 1997). Experimental evidence is in line with that notion (e.g., Mesoudi et al., 2006). In general, gossip appears to be a widely spread and almost inevitable phenomenon.
As a result, important social functions have been postulated for gossip in anthropological and psychological science (e.g., Suls, 1977; Baumeister et al., 2004; Dunbar, 2004a,b; Foster, 2004; Hartung and Renner, 2013). First, gossip is an efficient means of gathering and disseminating information (Foster, 2004). The exchanged information enables individuals to get a map of their social environment and their position within that social environment (Suls, 1977; Baumeister et al., 2004; Foster, 2004; De Backer et al., 2007; Sommerfeld et al., 2007; Martinescu et al., 2014). Baumeister et al. (2004), for instance, understand gossip as an extension of observational learning. People learn about the complex social and cultural life by hearing about the success and misadventures of others. It appears that we do not learn only about extraordinary experience made by others but also about more trivial things such as dressing style (De Backer et al., 2007). Thus, exchanging information about others enables us to learn without direct interaction and observation.
Secondly, Dunbar (1998, 2004a) and Mesoudi et al. (2006) argues in his social gossip theory of language that human language evolved in order to keep track of complex social networks and to ensure the cohesion in large social groups. More specifically, it has been suggested and empirically shown that, at the dyadic level, sharing gossip is associated with friendship (Grosser et al., 2010; Watson, 2011; Ellwardt et al., 2012b) and even leads to the development of friendships (Ellwardt et al., 2012b; see also Bosson et al., 2006). In addition, it has been suggested that, at the group level, gossip leads to group specific knowledge, norms, and trust, in turn supporting group cohesion and bonding (e.g., Dunbar, 2004b; Foster, 2004; Peters et al., 2017). Thus, sharing information about others is a way to build and maintain relationships and networks.
Thirdly, a growing number of researchers assume that gossip serves as an informal policing device for controlling free riders and social cheats (Dunbar, 2004b; Keltner et al., 2008; Feinberg et al., 2012). Faced with the concern that information about negative behavior runs through the grapevine and may consequently lead to the loss of reputation or even social exclusion, it prevents people from acting against social norms and the good of the group (Piazza and Bering, 2008; Beersma and Van Kleef, 2011; Feinberg et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2016). Thus, gossip keeps people from acting against the good of the group and fosters cooperation.
Finally, it has been suggested that gossip has an entertainment function providing recreational value and considerable stimulation for very little costs (Foster, 2004; Peng et al., 2015). Taken together, research has postulated and empirically shown that the exchange of information about absent third persons serves several important functions in a social environment.
However, despite its important social functions, gossip has a rather negative reputation (Farley, 2011; Hartung and Renner, 2013; Peters and Kashima, 2013). For instance, asking individuals to rate their tendency to gossip, they rate themselves to be less gossipy than an average peer of the same sex, suggesting that gossiping is perceived rather negatively (Hartung and Renner, 2013). Also, frequent gossipers are perceived as less likable and less popular than people gossiping less frequently (Farley, 2011; Ellwardt et al., 2012b). Supporting the bad reputation, some researchers suggest that gossip is a covert form of aggression (i.e., non-confrontational) especially used by women (e.g., McAndrew, 2014). Thus, the positive “social function view” is not mirrored in the reputation of gossip and gossipers.
Thus, evaluating gossip as a rather positive or negative behavior is not as easy as it may appear at first sight. Focusing on the social functions, that can be understood as not necessarily intended social consequences of gossip behavior, research clearly paints a positive picture of gossip. However, one might also evaluate gossip with respect to other dimensions such as positivity or negativity of the transmitted information or the intention of the gossiper (Eckhaus and Ben-Hador, 2018). Focusing on one of these dimensions of gossip might change the evaluation and emphasize the negative reputation of gossip. And indeed, research has shown that people give consideration to the fact that gossip differs and also gossipers differ from each other (Farley, 2011; Beersma and Van Kleef, 2012; Peters and Kashima, 2015). Empirical findings have shown that people take the presumed motivation of a gossiper into account when judging the morality of the respective gossiper, for instance (Beersma and Van Kleef, 2012). Thus, even though people disapprove of gossip in general, they consider the reasons people might have to gossip.
Hence, to evaluate whether a certain behavior is good or bad, the underlying reasons or the intentions should be taken into account. Curiously, very few research exists on simply asking people about the reasons why they gossip (Beersma and Van Kleef, 2012). In their study, Beersma and Van Kleef (2012) distinguished four different reasons to gossip, namely information gathering and validation, social enjoyment, negative influence, and group protection. This means, people instigate gossip to gather information and compare their ideas about others, to enjoy themselves, to spread negative information about a third person, and/or to protect the person they are talking with. The study provides initial evidence that people primarily gossip to gain information about other people and not to harm others (Beersma and Van Kleef, 2012). Thus, when focusing on gossipers' intentions, a rather positive picture of gossip is painted.
Another way to explore whether the reputation of gossip is justified is to examine the gossip reasons of individuals scoring high on narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy. These three traits are summarized under the umbrella term dark triad and gained considerable attention in the past years (Jones and Paulhus, 2011; O‘Boyle et al., 2012; Furnham et al., 2013; Jones and Figueredo, 2013; Lee et al., 2013; Book et al., 2015; Muris et al., 2017). It has been shown that the three traits are overlapping, but are nevertheless distinct concepts (e.g., Furnham et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2013; but see also Muris et al., 2017). As the common core the tendency to deceive, manipulate, and exploit others for one's own benefit has been suggested (Lee et al., 2013; see also Jones and Figueredo, 2013). Conversations about absent third parties appear to be an apparent method to do exactly that. Thus, if individuals with “dark” personalities regularly use gossip to spread negative information and harm others that would surely contribute to the negative reputation of gossip. However, if even individuals with “dark” personalities rarely use gossip with the intention to harm others, the positive aspects of gossip would be underlined.
Research has shown that the dark triad personality traits are related to a variety of negative social and non-social outcomes (e.g., Baughman et al., 2012; O‘Boyle et al., 2012; Wisse and Sleebos, 2016; Muris et al., 2017; Deutchman and Sullivan, 2018). For instance, individuals scoring higher on the dark triad traits show a higher tendency to tell lies and to cheat than individuals scoring lower on these traits (Nathanson et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2010; Baughman et al., 2014; Jonason et al., 2014; Roeser et al., 2016; Muris et al., 2017). In addition, individuals scoring higher on the dark triad value themselves over the others (Jonason et al., 2015), are less concerned with others' welfare (Djeriouat and Trémolière, 2014; Jonason et al., 2015; Noser et al., 2015) and with fairness (Jonason et al., 2015). Taken together, these studies and reviews illustrate that individuals scoring higher on the dark triad personality traits are willing to dismiss commonly accepted social norms and harm others for their own good.
Therefore, it is plausible to assume that individuals scoring higher on the dark traits are also more ready to use gossip for their own sake without caring about potentially negative effects for others. More specifically, it is easy to imagine that individuals scoring higher on the dark triad readily use gossip to negatively influence another person's reputation (i.e., potential competitor or rival) to push through self-beneficial agendas. In line with that notion, women scoring high on the dark triad traits use gossip—among other strategies—to derogate competitors (Carter et al., 2015). Additionally, as people with dark personalities are not concerned with others' welfare, they probably use gossip less often to protect other individuals or their group from harm (but see Lyons and Hughes, 2015). In a similar vein, the dark side of personality probably has a high impact on gossip motives that serve individual purposes. For instance, people scoring high on the dark triad traits report to have a strong desire for power, control, and dominance (e.g., Jonason et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2013; Semenyna and Honey, 2015). Gaining social information and knowledge about people surrounding us provides us with a sense of control and advantage over others (e.g., Swann et al., 1981; Fiske, 2004). Therefore, simply gathering and validating social information might be another salient reason for dark personalities to gossip.
Taken together, the present online study focuses on the reasons why people engage in conversations about absent third parties. The aims of the present study are 2-fold. First, we aim to examine the reasons for people to engage in gossip, replicating the study of Beersma and Van Kleef (2012). To do so, we translated the Motives to Gossip Questionnaire into German. In addition, we extended the questionnaire by widening the number of possible reasons including gossiping in order to foster relationship building and to gather social information. Second, to examine whether the bad reputation of gossip is justified or not, we explore the role of the “dark” personality traits in gossip motivation. One might assume that individuals scoring higher on narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy are more likely unconcerned with moral considerations and driven by selfish reasons when engaging in gossip, consequently, contributing to the negative reputation of gossip. However, we have no specific hypotheses concerning the single dark triad traits.
The Motives to Gossip Questionnaire asks participants to rate their reasons for gossip in a specific situation. In order to explore to what extent gossip motives can be generalized across situations, two different situations were incorporated in the study (i.e., private as well as workplace situations). Based on the work of Mischel (1977), researchers differentiate between strong situations with normative expectations and clear roles that constrain behavior, and weak situations which do not provide normative expectations, and, therefore, allow for more freedom in behavior and the expression of personality. Mischel (1977) argued that behavior in strong situations is based on situational circumstances rather than on the individual's personality. In the workplace, people have to follow rules and adjust their behavior to fulfill or support organizational objectives. Here we can assume rather strong situations. In private situations on the other hand, people are mostly unrestricted and have to comply with fewer norms or rules. Also, it is likely that work and private setting differ on a competitiveness-cooperativeness dimension. A competitive situation might elicit motives that serve the individual more easily and hazards negative consequences for others. Taken together, we assume that the work context reflects a rather strong (i.e., clear normative expectations) and competitive situation; and the private context reflects a rather weak and more cooperative situation. Consequently, we explore whether motives show differential importance between these two situations and whether the dark triad traits show differential relationships to gossip reasons across situations (see also Beersma and Van Kleef, 2012).
Abstract: Gossip is an ubiquitous phenomenon. Hearing information about others serves important social functions such as learning without direct interaction and observation. Despite important social functions gossip has a rather negative reputation. Therefore, the present online study focuses on the reasons why people gossip and how these reasons are related to personality (i.e., dark triad) and situational settings. Six distinct motives were identified that underlie gossip behavior: information validation, information gathering, relationship building, protection, social enjoyment, and negative influence. The most important motive was validating information about the gossip target followed by the motive to acquire new information about the gossip target. The least important motive was harming the gossip target. The motivational pattern was highly similar between private and work context. Interestingly, the importance of motives mainly depends on the gossiper's narcissism both in work and in private settings. The findings suggest that the negative reputation of gossip is not justified. In fact, even “dark” personalities appear to use gossip to tune their picture of other humans and themselves and not to harm others.
Introduction
Eavesdropping in public settings reveals that people devote a substantial part of their conversations to gossip (e.g., Levin and Arluke, 1985; Dunbar et al., 1997). Accordingly, important social functions have been postulated for gossip in science (e.g., Foster, 2004). Despite these important functions, gossip has a rather bad reputation since it is perceived as inherently malicious harming people and society (e.g., Farley, 2011; Hartung and Renner, 2013; Peters and Kashima, 2013). Whether behavior can be judged as good or bad depends, at least in part, on the intention of the individuals engaging in that behavior. Therefore, the present study aims to examine whether the bad reputation of gossip is justified by examining reasons to gossip. In addition, we examine the reasons of individuals scoring high on the dark triad personality traits (i.e., narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy) as they are known to ignore commonly accepted norms and to act selfishly (e.g., O‘Boyle et al., 2012; Muris et al., 2017). More specifically, we investigate whether individuals scoring high on the dark triad personality traits are more ready to use gossip in order to harm others and to serve themselves, thereby, contributing to the negative reputation of gossip.
Gossip refers to the exchange of information about characteristics and behaviors of an absent person (Dunbar, 2004b; Foster, 2004; Peters and Kashima, 2015). From an anthropological perspective, it has been argued that human language primarily evolved to exchange social information in order to deal with complex social situations (Dunbar, 1998, 2004a; Barrett et al., 2002), and that we, therefore, preferentially attend to social information (e.g., Mesoudi et al., 2006). Accordingly, two thirds of adult conversations in public settings involve gossip (e.g., Levin and Arluke, 1985; Dunbar et al., 1997). Experimental evidence is in line with that notion (e.g., Mesoudi et al., 2006). In general, gossip appears to be a widely spread and almost inevitable phenomenon.
As a result, important social functions have been postulated for gossip in anthropological and psychological science (e.g., Suls, 1977; Baumeister et al., 2004; Dunbar, 2004a,b; Foster, 2004; Hartung and Renner, 2013). First, gossip is an efficient means of gathering and disseminating information (Foster, 2004). The exchanged information enables individuals to get a map of their social environment and their position within that social environment (Suls, 1977; Baumeister et al., 2004; Foster, 2004; De Backer et al., 2007; Sommerfeld et al., 2007; Martinescu et al., 2014). Baumeister et al. (2004), for instance, understand gossip as an extension of observational learning. People learn about the complex social and cultural life by hearing about the success and misadventures of others. It appears that we do not learn only about extraordinary experience made by others but also about more trivial things such as dressing style (De Backer et al., 2007). Thus, exchanging information about others enables us to learn without direct interaction and observation.
Secondly, Dunbar (1998, 2004a) and Mesoudi et al. (2006) argues in his social gossip theory of language that human language evolved in order to keep track of complex social networks and to ensure the cohesion in large social groups. More specifically, it has been suggested and empirically shown that, at the dyadic level, sharing gossip is associated with friendship (Grosser et al., 2010; Watson, 2011; Ellwardt et al., 2012b) and even leads to the development of friendships (Ellwardt et al., 2012b; see also Bosson et al., 2006). In addition, it has been suggested that, at the group level, gossip leads to group specific knowledge, norms, and trust, in turn supporting group cohesion and bonding (e.g., Dunbar, 2004b; Foster, 2004; Peters et al., 2017). Thus, sharing information about others is a way to build and maintain relationships and networks.
Thirdly, a growing number of researchers assume that gossip serves as an informal policing device for controlling free riders and social cheats (Dunbar, 2004b; Keltner et al., 2008; Feinberg et al., 2012). Faced with the concern that information about negative behavior runs through the grapevine and may consequently lead to the loss of reputation or even social exclusion, it prevents people from acting against social norms and the good of the group (Piazza and Bering, 2008; Beersma and Van Kleef, 2011; Feinberg et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2016). Thus, gossip keeps people from acting against the good of the group and fosters cooperation.
Finally, it has been suggested that gossip has an entertainment function providing recreational value and considerable stimulation for very little costs (Foster, 2004; Peng et al., 2015). Taken together, research has postulated and empirically shown that the exchange of information about absent third persons serves several important functions in a social environment.
However, despite its important social functions, gossip has a rather negative reputation (Farley, 2011; Hartung and Renner, 2013; Peters and Kashima, 2013). For instance, asking individuals to rate their tendency to gossip, they rate themselves to be less gossipy than an average peer of the same sex, suggesting that gossiping is perceived rather negatively (Hartung and Renner, 2013). Also, frequent gossipers are perceived as less likable and less popular than people gossiping less frequently (Farley, 2011; Ellwardt et al., 2012b). Supporting the bad reputation, some researchers suggest that gossip is a covert form of aggression (i.e., non-confrontational) especially used by women (e.g., McAndrew, 2014). Thus, the positive “social function view” is not mirrored in the reputation of gossip and gossipers.
Thus, evaluating gossip as a rather positive or negative behavior is not as easy as it may appear at first sight. Focusing on the social functions, that can be understood as not necessarily intended social consequences of gossip behavior, research clearly paints a positive picture of gossip. However, one might also evaluate gossip with respect to other dimensions such as positivity or negativity of the transmitted information or the intention of the gossiper (Eckhaus and Ben-Hador, 2018). Focusing on one of these dimensions of gossip might change the evaluation and emphasize the negative reputation of gossip. And indeed, research has shown that people give consideration to the fact that gossip differs and also gossipers differ from each other (Farley, 2011; Beersma and Van Kleef, 2012; Peters and Kashima, 2015). Empirical findings have shown that people take the presumed motivation of a gossiper into account when judging the morality of the respective gossiper, for instance (Beersma and Van Kleef, 2012). Thus, even though people disapprove of gossip in general, they consider the reasons people might have to gossip.
Hence, to evaluate whether a certain behavior is good or bad, the underlying reasons or the intentions should be taken into account. Curiously, very few research exists on simply asking people about the reasons why they gossip (Beersma and Van Kleef, 2012). In their study, Beersma and Van Kleef (2012) distinguished four different reasons to gossip, namely information gathering and validation, social enjoyment, negative influence, and group protection. This means, people instigate gossip to gather information and compare their ideas about others, to enjoy themselves, to spread negative information about a third person, and/or to protect the person they are talking with. The study provides initial evidence that people primarily gossip to gain information about other people and not to harm others (Beersma and Van Kleef, 2012). Thus, when focusing on gossipers' intentions, a rather positive picture of gossip is painted.
Another way to explore whether the reputation of gossip is justified is to examine the gossip reasons of individuals scoring high on narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy. These three traits are summarized under the umbrella term dark triad and gained considerable attention in the past years (Jones and Paulhus, 2011; O‘Boyle et al., 2012; Furnham et al., 2013; Jones and Figueredo, 2013; Lee et al., 2013; Book et al., 2015; Muris et al., 2017). It has been shown that the three traits are overlapping, but are nevertheless distinct concepts (e.g., Furnham et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2013; but see also Muris et al., 2017). As the common core the tendency to deceive, manipulate, and exploit others for one's own benefit has been suggested (Lee et al., 2013; see also Jones and Figueredo, 2013). Conversations about absent third parties appear to be an apparent method to do exactly that. Thus, if individuals with “dark” personalities regularly use gossip to spread negative information and harm others that would surely contribute to the negative reputation of gossip. However, if even individuals with “dark” personalities rarely use gossip with the intention to harm others, the positive aspects of gossip would be underlined.
Research has shown that the dark triad personality traits are related to a variety of negative social and non-social outcomes (e.g., Baughman et al., 2012; O‘Boyle et al., 2012; Wisse and Sleebos, 2016; Muris et al., 2017; Deutchman and Sullivan, 2018). For instance, individuals scoring higher on the dark triad traits show a higher tendency to tell lies and to cheat than individuals scoring lower on these traits (Nathanson et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2010; Baughman et al., 2014; Jonason et al., 2014; Roeser et al., 2016; Muris et al., 2017). In addition, individuals scoring higher on the dark triad value themselves over the others (Jonason et al., 2015), are less concerned with others' welfare (Djeriouat and Trémolière, 2014; Jonason et al., 2015; Noser et al., 2015) and with fairness (Jonason et al., 2015). Taken together, these studies and reviews illustrate that individuals scoring higher on the dark triad personality traits are willing to dismiss commonly accepted social norms and harm others for their own good.
Therefore, it is plausible to assume that individuals scoring higher on the dark traits are also more ready to use gossip for their own sake without caring about potentially negative effects for others. More specifically, it is easy to imagine that individuals scoring higher on the dark triad readily use gossip to negatively influence another person's reputation (i.e., potential competitor or rival) to push through self-beneficial agendas. In line with that notion, women scoring high on the dark triad traits use gossip—among other strategies—to derogate competitors (Carter et al., 2015). Additionally, as people with dark personalities are not concerned with others' welfare, they probably use gossip less often to protect other individuals or their group from harm (but see Lyons and Hughes, 2015). In a similar vein, the dark side of personality probably has a high impact on gossip motives that serve individual purposes. For instance, people scoring high on the dark triad traits report to have a strong desire for power, control, and dominance (e.g., Jonason et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2013; Semenyna and Honey, 2015). Gaining social information and knowledge about people surrounding us provides us with a sense of control and advantage over others (e.g., Swann et al., 1981; Fiske, 2004). Therefore, simply gathering and validating social information might be another salient reason for dark personalities to gossip.
Taken together, the present online study focuses on the reasons why people engage in conversations about absent third parties. The aims of the present study are 2-fold. First, we aim to examine the reasons for people to engage in gossip, replicating the study of Beersma and Van Kleef (2012). To do so, we translated the Motives to Gossip Questionnaire into German. In addition, we extended the questionnaire by widening the number of possible reasons including gossiping in order to foster relationship building and to gather social information. Second, to examine whether the bad reputation of gossip is justified or not, we explore the role of the “dark” personality traits in gossip motivation. One might assume that individuals scoring higher on narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy are more likely unconcerned with moral considerations and driven by selfish reasons when engaging in gossip, consequently, contributing to the negative reputation of gossip. However, we have no specific hypotheses concerning the single dark triad traits.
The Motives to Gossip Questionnaire asks participants to rate their reasons for gossip in a specific situation. In order to explore to what extent gossip motives can be generalized across situations, two different situations were incorporated in the study (i.e., private as well as workplace situations). Based on the work of Mischel (1977), researchers differentiate between strong situations with normative expectations and clear roles that constrain behavior, and weak situations which do not provide normative expectations, and, therefore, allow for more freedom in behavior and the expression of personality. Mischel (1977) argued that behavior in strong situations is based on situational circumstances rather than on the individual's personality. In the workplace, people have to follow rules and adjust their behavior to fulfill or support organizational objectives. Here we can assume rather strong situations. In private situations on the other hand, people are mostly unrestricted and have to comply with fewer norms or rules. Also, it is likely that work and private setting differ on a competitiveness-cooperativeness dimension. A competitive situation might elicit motives that serve the individual more easily and hazards negative consequences for others. Taken together, we assume that the work context reflects a rather strong (i.e., clear normative expectations) and competitive situation; and the private context reflects a rather weak and more cooperative situation. Consequently, we explore whether motives show differential importance between these two situations and whether the dark triad traits show differential relationships to gossip reasons across situations (see also Beersma and Van Kleef, 2012).
Beauty Is Not Always in the Eye of the Beholder: The Role of Vision in the Emergence of Mate Preferences
Scheller, Meike, Francine Matorres, Lucy Tompkins, Anthony C. Little, and Alexandra A. de Sousa. 2019. “Beauty Is Not Always in the Eye of the Beholder: The Role of Vision in the Emergence of Mate Preferences.” PsyArXiv. May 29. doi:10.31234/osf.io/nt3x
Abstract: Cross-cultural research has repeatedly demonstrated sex differences in the importance of different partner traits when choosing a mate. Here, men typically report higher preferences for younger, more physically attractive women, while women prefer men that are wealthier and of higher status. As the assessment of such partner characteristics often relies on visual cues, this raises the question whether visual experience is necessary in order for sex-specific mate preferences to develop. To shed more light onto the emergence of sex differences in mate choice, the current study assesses how preferences for attractiveness, resources, and personality factors differ between sighted and blind individuals. We further investigate the role of social factors and sensory cue selection in these sex-specific differences. Our sample consisted of 94 participants, 19 blind/28 sighted males, and 19 blind/28 sighted females. Results replicated well-documented findings in the sighted, with men placing more importance on physical attractiveness and women placing more importance on status and resources. However, while physical attractiveness was less important to blind men, blind women considered physical attractiveness as important as sighted women. The importance of a high status and similar personality was not influenced by sightedness. Blind individuals considered auditory cues more important than visual cues, while sighted males showed the opposite pattern. A good odor was generally rated as more important than other cues. Further, relationship status and indirect, social influences were related to preferences. Overall, our findings shed light on the emergence of sex-differences in mate preference by evaluating the influence previous exposure to certain partner characteristics has on the emergence of mate preferences.
Abstract: Cross-cultural research has repeatedly demonstrated sex differences in the importance of different partner traits when choosing a mate. Here, men typically report higher preferences for younger, more physically attractive women, while women prefer men that are wealthier and of higher status. As the assessment of such partner characteristics often relies on visual cues, this raises the question whether visual experience is necessary in order for sex-specific mate preferences to develop. To shed more light onto the emergence of sex differences in mate choice, the current study assesses how preferences for attractiveness, resources, and personality factors differ between sighted and blind individuals. We further investigate the role of social factors and sensory cue selection in these sex-specific differences. Our sample consisted of 94 participants, 19 blind/28 sighted males, and 19 blind/28 sighted females. Results replicated well-documented findings in the sighted, with men placing more importance on physical attractiveness and women placing more importance on status and resources. However, while physical attractiveness was less important to blind men, blind women considered physical attractiveness as important as sighted women. The importance of a high status and similar personality was not influenced by sightedness. Blind individuals considered auditory cues more important than visual cues, while sighted males showed the opposite pattern. A good odor was generally rated as more important than other cues. Further, relationship status and indirect, social influences were related to preferences. Overall, our findings shed light on the emergence of sex-differences in mate preference by evaluating the influence previous exposure to certain partner characteristics has on the emergence of mate preferences.
Preliminary data, Millennials' philanthropic behavior: One cannot reject the hypothesis that Millennials donate more than members of earlier generations; but also seems true that are somewhat less likely to make any donations at all
Are Millennials Really Particularly Selfish? Preliminary Evidence From a Cross-Sectional Sample in the Philanthropy Panel Study. Peter Koczanski, Harvey S. Rosen. American Behavioral Scientist, May 28, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219850871
Abstract: We use panel data on charitable donations to analyze how the philanthropic behavior of Millennials (born between 1981 and 1996) compares with that of earlier generations. On the basis of a multivariate analysis with a rich set of economic and demographic variables, we find that conditional on making a gift, one cannot reject the hypothesis that Millennials donate more than members of earlier generations. However, Millennials are somewhat less likely to make any donations at all than their generational predecessors. While our data do not allow us to explore causal mechanisms, our findings suggest a more nuanced view of the Millennials’ prosocial behavior than is depicted in popular accounts.
Keywords: generosity, Millennials, selfishness, emerging adulthood theory, charity
Abstract: We use panel data on charitable donations to analyze how the philanthropic behavior of Millennials (born between 1981 and 1996) compares with that of earlier generations. On the basis of a multivariate analysis with a rich set of economic and demographic variables, we find that conditional on making a gift, one cannot reject the hypothesis that Millennials donate more than members of earlier generations. However, Millennials are somewhat less likely to make any donations at all than their generational predecessors. While our data do not allow us to explore causal mechanisms, our findings suggest a more nuanced view of the Millennials’ prosocial behavior than is depicted in popular accounts.
Keywords: generosity, Millennials, selfishness, emerging adulthood theory, charity
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