The "Duchenne smile", which exposes your crow's feet, was once thought to be an authentic and forgery-proof expression of positive emotion, but it is not so.

More What Duchenne Smiles Do, Less What They Express. Eva G. Krumhuber, Arvid Kappas. Perspectives on Psychological Science, June 17, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211071083

Abstract: We comment on an article by Sheldon et al. from a previous issue of Perspectives (May 2021). They argued that the presence of positive emotion (Hypothesis 1), the intensity of positive emotion (Hypothesis 2), and chronic positive mood (Hypothesis 3) are reliably signaled by the Duchenne smile (DS). We reexamined the cited literature in support of each hypothesis and show that the study findings were mostly inconclusive, irrelevant, incomplete, and/or misread. In fact, there is no single (empirical) article that would unanimously support the idea that DSs function solely as indicators of felt positive affect. Additional evidence is reviewed, suggesting that DSs can be—and often are—displayed deliberately and in the absence of positive feelings. Although DSs may lead to favorable interpersonal perceptions and positive emotional responses in the observer, we propose a functional view that focuses on what facial actions—here specifically DSs—do rather than what they express.

Keywords: Duchenne, smile, facial expression, emotion

What mattered for mental health was not the absolute number of likes received on social media, but whether expectations for likes were met

Are You Getting Likes as Anticipated? Untangling the Relationship between Received Likes, Social Support from Friends, and Mental Health via Expectancy Violation Theory. Jack Lipei Tang. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Jun 16 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2022.2087654

Abstract: There is a pressing need to understand whether using social media might be linked to mental health and if yes, how. The findings of this study (N = 475) show that individuals who received more Likes on social media posts reported more friend support. However, what matters to mental health is the level of expectancy violation of the number of received Likes. The two dimensions of expectancy violation of receiving Likes (number vs. responder) have different effects on the outcome variables. Theoretical and practical implications about how social media influences friend support and mental health for young adults are discussed.

In the absence of research, we need not presuppose that sextech/digisexuality (human–sex robot relationships) will increase hegemonic or toxic forms of masculinity, compared to carbonsexuality

Plastic fantastic: Sex robots and/as sexual fantasy. Lara Karaian. Sexualities, June 12, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/13634607221106667

Abstract: This article provides an interdisciplinary and intersectional analysis of sex robots and/as sexual fantasy. I demonstrate that sexual fantasy is a highly complex and salient vector of analysis for any discussion of love and sex with robots. First, I introduce contemporary North American sex robots and offer a brief sketch of their ontology as relates to sex toys and pornography. Next, I provide a short but instructive mapping of sexual fantasy scholarship from across the fields of experimental psychology, media and cultural studies, post-colonial, psychoanalytic, feminist, queer and critical race theory. My goal here is to demonstrate sexual fantasy’s polymorphous and productive nature and its complex relationship to reality. Drawing on the theories of sexual fantasy canvassed herein, I examine the role of fantasy to sex robots’ inception, marketing, and consumption. From here I offer an appraisal of radical feminist, new materialist, and disabled queer and trans feminists’ critiques of sex robots and their users. I argue that theorizing sex robots through the lens(es) of sexual fantasy is necessary given efforts to stigmatize, regulate, and criminalize sexual fantasy and sextech users in the post/digital age. Future scholarship is encouraged to further examine the sex robot/sexual fantasy nexus and to consider whether and how their intersections impede or facilitate the development of alternative “networks of affection” including those that lie between the platonic and romantic or between “carbonsexuality” and technosexuality/digisexuality.

Keywords: sex robot, sexual fantasy, sextech, intersectional, digisexuality

Silicone users and abusers?

To a degree, the assumption that sex doll and robot users are a relatively privileged group, not the sexual subjects who have historically been socially and psychically abjected, dominated, and “punished most viciously for seeking out the pleasures of perverse sexual license” (Rodriguez, 2011: 336), is correct. Despite the growing number of people who fantasize about and express a willingness to have sex with robots (Lehmiller, 2018; Rajnerowicz, 2021), approximately 80% of sex doll owners are a majority cis-gender, white, men (Su et al., 2019), with a degree of financial privilege (given the high cost of realistic sex dolls and doll-bots), while 20% are couples and females (Döring et al., 2020: 13). Emerging research on sex doll users suggests that while a minority of consumers are “Men Going Their Own Way” men’s rights activists, the majority of users reject misogynistic views of women as well as heterosexual and monogamous constraints placed upon their sexual and intimate needs (Hanson, 2021).

Extrapolating further from existing sex doll literature, these men are privileged in that they are no more lonely, desperate, or socially inept than those in the general US population (Szczuka and Krämer, 2017), nor do they exhibit significantly higher rates of mental-illness (Valverde, 2012). Any attempts to condemn them based on the assumption that male use of sexual objects deviates from “statistical sexual norms” (Szczuka and Krämer, 2017: 4) or that users are “fetishists” (De Fren, 2009; Valverde, 2012) ignores the fact that both object fetishism (“sexual arousal from the erotic use of inanimate, nonliving objects”) (Rees and Garcia, 2017) and men’s use of flesh lights (Lampen, 2017) and vibrators (Reece et al., 2009) is relatively common and positively experienced within the North American context. Although sex doll users have been found to experience “above-average problems with sexual functioning” (Valverde, 2012: 30), this is arguable a normative evaluation that reifies the primacy of the ejaculatory penis above other organs, acts, pleasures, and intimacies, and ignores the growing destigmatization and usage of “erectile dysfunction” drug for medical and recreational purposes (Marsh and readers, 2017).

Notwithstanding their privileges, these men are also deviantized and marginalized in mainstream narratives (Borenstein and Arkin, 2019; Di Nucci, 2017), where they are regularly depicted as deprived victim-loners (CBC News, 2019), sicko “creeps” (Tiehen, 2018); pervy “johns” (Amin, 2019; Comella, 2018), and pre-criminals (Douthat, 2018). Although the source of their abjection is multifaceted, evidence suggests that this abjection flows, in large part, from the explicit parallels drawn between them and rapists, porn consumers, and sex work clients. That is, to the extent that sex robots are understood as commercialized manifest fantasy and as a means of playing out (common) S/M and rape fantasies, the men who consume them have been framed as users and abusers; as perpetrators of rape culture, as yet another source or symptom of a pornographic “public health crisis” (Blunt and Stardust, 2021); and/or as “unworthy” clients of commercial sex (Pheterson, 1993) who must be shamed, stigmatized, and criminalized (Weitzer, 2018).

In this context it is worth considering whether sex robot consumers can be understood as deviantized or even as queer sexual subjects in the same way some have suggested that “deviantized” sex work clients should be theorized (Khan, 2019). Indeed, additional support for the queerness and homosociality of sex robot users is evidenced by emerging analyses of male sex doll users and communities (Burr-Miller and Aoki, 2013; Middleweek, 2021; Su et al., 2019), as well as within the personal narratives of female sex robot consumers such as that of queer artist Amber Hawk Swanson. For instance, grappling with her difficulty finding a female partner, Hawk Swanson found herself admiring, sympathizing, and identifying with the online community of “doll husbands”—men who owned and loved their own RealDolls—and in 2006 commissioned a life-size RealDoll (not a robot) in her own image. Of her art, Getsy writes that Hawk Swanson disrupts “clichéd (heterosexual) fantasies of lesbian desire and of twin sexuality, both of which repeatedly surface as erotic ideals in popular culture as well as mainstream pornography” (2013: 469) while also complicating the boundary between “victimizing owner and victimized image” thus exposing “the anxious interdependence of self-objectification and self-realization” (2013: 474 and 475). Hawk Swanson’s subsequent conversations with doll users in her collection entitled Doll Closet (2017), draws on the closet metaphor to signify the stigmatization that keeps doll owners hidden, while also acknowledging the closet as a necessary space for sex doll/bots that must be hung to avoid being damaged. Of the iDollators she speaks with at least one is racialized—the internationally known Davecat—whereas others gender-bend and express their own heterosexual desires alongside a disidentification with heteronormativity. To this resource we can add the growing body of media coverage that exposes sex doll users as running the gamut from heterosexual married couples, to interracial poly couples and single queer men (Beck, 2013; Pemberton, 2020). Taken together with qualitative analysis of male users of a major sex doll forums, it thus begs considering how, “in the absence of empirical research otherwise, we need not presuppose that human–sex robot relationships will increase hegemonic or toxic forms of masculinity” and whether “these new relationship configurations may usher in new identities, communities or “liberated forms of sexuality” that enhance our lives with novel forms of mechanized pleasure” (Middleweek, 2021: 383). To the extent that emerging studies of sex dollbot and their users help to reveal the “myth of a natural, monolithic heterosexuality… [and the] capriciousness of its logic” (Burr-Miller and Aoki, 2013: 386), it becomes possible to view the idea of the “hegemonic sex robot user” as itself a fantasy⁶ and to question the construction of sex robot consumers as singularly privileged male users and abusers with oppressive sexual fantasies.

The attitudes that we believe a good person should or shouldn’t hold are tremendously diverse & reliably connected to a sense of self; also, we are very good at making peace with our own "bad" attitudes

A Good Person Shouldn’t Feel This Way: Moralized Attitudes, Identity, and Self-Esteem. Pierce Ekstrom, Calvin Lai. Collabra: Psychology (2022) 8 (1): 36344. Jun 16 2022. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.36344

Abstract: Moralized attitudes are the attitudes that people construe as matters of right and wrong. In this study, we examine how moralized attitudes relate to how people evaluate themselves using the Attitudes, Identities, and Individual Differences (AIID) dataset—a survey of over 200,000 individuals asked to report their attitudes in one of 95 domains. In pre-registered analyses that were based on exploratory analyses of a subset of the data, we found that the specific attitudes that people moralize differ greatly from individual to individual and that moralized attitudes are more central to one’s identity than non-moralized attitudes. We also examined whether mental conflict between identity-central attitudes and gut feelings about the corresponding attitude objects would be related to lower self-esteem, finding mixed and weak evidence supporting that claim. Together, our findings indicate that the attitudes that people moralize are tremendously diverse and are reliably connected to a sense of self. At the same time, peoples’ self-esteem may be resilient to specific instances in which their gut feelings fall short of the attitudes that are central to their identity.

Keywords:Morality, Attitudes, Self-Esteem, The Self

Discussion

Summary of Results

Our analyses yielded three key results. First, our descriptive analyses suggest that the attitudes that people perceive to be matters of right and wrong are extraordinarily diverse. Some participants saw room for debate concerning attitudes and behavior that most people would consider to be unequivocally moral. For example, a handful of participants “agreed” or “strongly agreed” that “Because of my personal values, I believe that making negative judgments about giving is acceptable” (6.3% of those who saw the question). At the same time, some participants passed stark judgment on some attitudes and behavior that most people would perceive as matters of taste. For example, some participants “strongly agreed” that “Because of my personal values, I believe that making negative judgments about Harry Potter is unacceptable” (8.5% of participants who saw the question). The descriptive statistics presented in Figure 4 illustrate this diversity. The end result is that there are probably very few (if any) attitudes or behaviors that all people would agree to be moral, immoral, or morally neutral. This diversity is in its own right an interesting characteristic of moral psychology, but it also suggests that researchers interested in how people think and feel about morally charged stimuli cannot always safely assume that their participants will construe a given stimulus in moral (or non-moral) terms.

Second, our results yield robust support for the Morality-Identity hypothesis. We found that when participants perceived their attitudes to be connected to their personal values, they were more likely to identify with those attitudes. They were also more likely to identify with the targets of those attitudes implicitly and explicitly (e.g., to see Harry Potter or Christians as part of their self-concept rather than to merely identify as someone who likes Harry Potter or Christians). This evidence is consistent with our prediction that people would perceive their idiosyncratic beliefs about right and wrong as a defining feature of who they are.

Finally, our results yield weak and inconsistent support for the Identity Rubric hypothesis. We find that our participants did not consistently evaluate themselves on the basis of whether their gut feelings were consistent with the “actual” attitudes that they cherish as defining features of their identity. Our first analysis found some evidence suggestive of this phenomenon; when participants reported negative gut feelings about targets with which they identified, they also reported slightly lower self-esteem. However, this may be because negative gut feelings about identity-central targets are, in and of themselves, negative gut feelings about the self. For example, negative gut feelings about Christians, Jews, European Americans, and African Americans could easily translate to negative self-evaluations among people who are themselves Christian, Jewish, European American, or African American—regardless of whether they think it is morally “wrong” or “acceptable” to judge people from these groups positively. Other models were more directly inconsistent with our predictions. When participants reported negative gut feelings about targets that they thought they ought to like, their reported self-esteem was almost identical to that of participants whose gut feelings and explicit attitudes were perfectly consistent. We observed a similar null effect for implicit identification with targets and for every other indicator of attitude strength that we analyzed. Participants generally did not have lower self-esteem when their gut feelings were inconsistent with moralized, important, certain, or extreme attitudes.

Based on these findings, our initial theory requires significant revision. We hypothesized that moralized attitudes inform self-evaluation because they structure individuals’ self-concepts. Although we did find that moralized attitudes were relatively central to participants’ identities (consistent with the Morality-Identity hypothesis), we found little if any connection between participants’ self-esteem and the extent to which their gut feelings were consistent with those attitudes. Participants did not report feeling meaningfully worse about themselves when they were attracted to things they believed they shouldn’t like or repulsed by things they believed they ought to accept.

Limitations

That said, our study has several limitations that complicate this test of our theory.

Mixed evidence for key measures’ validity. The evidence from our validity study was mixed and weaker than we had anticipated. The most widely used measure of attitude moralization (moral conviction) only sometimes predicted responses to the AIID items. For one item, the relation was what we predicted for both positive and negative attitudes, though those relations were weak. For the other three items, the relation was only present either for positive or negative attitudes. We encountered similar problems with the AIID measures of attitude identity centrality. Despite this limitation, we remain confident in our conclusions for three reasons.

First, despite evidence that some measures were more valid than others and more or less valid for positive versus negative attitudes, we find no evidence that our results depended on which AIID items we used to assess attitude moralization or attitude identity centrality. Second, although the measures we used to assess the validity of the AIID items are certainly more widely used and better established as measures of the target constructs, they are still just measures, not perfect reflections of the constructs of interest. Given that the AIID measures each make explicit reference to their respective target constructs (e.g., “personal values,” decisions about what is “wrong” or “acceptable,” whether reactions are “important to” and “inconsistent with” the “self-concept”), these measures may capture aspects of moralization and identity centrality that other measures do not. Finally, we found converging evidence for our conclusions with analyses that does not rely on the AIID measures. To do this, we used the validation study to conduct an additional un-pre-registered test of the Morality-Identity hypothesis. Our theory would predict that Skitka and colleagues’ moral conviction measure would be related to Luhtanen and Crocker’s (1992) measure of identity centrality for the 20 attitude targets in this study. It was (b = 0.32, 95% CI: [0.27, 0.37], p < 0.001), even controlling for the effect of importance. In addition, the analyses described in Table 9 suggest that alternative measures of moralization or identification would probably not yield any stronger support for the Identity Rubric hypothesis. Participants’ self-esteem was basically unmoved regardless of how severely their gut feelings contradicted certain, important, extreme, “identity-central,” or “moralized” attitudes. Even if we have failed to find a direct, precise measure of moralization or identity centrality, surely at least one of these indices of attitude strength would at least be correlated with such a measure. If the Identity Rubric hypothesis were true, then, it seems unlikely that all of these tests would be so uniformly null.

Still, our validity study offers an important caveat for our own and future work. We cannot safely assume that when people say that their attitude is moral or important to who they are, they will also say that the opposite attitude is immoral or anathema to their self-concept. Although we might say people “moralize” an attitude when they judge it to be desirable, acceptable, or wrong, these judgments probably do not lie along a single dimension.

Narrow threats to the self and a broad measure of self-esteem. In hindsight, our predictions may have presumed self-esteem to be too fragile. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale is intended to measure self-esteem as a global trait. Meanwhile, we analyzed participants’ gut feelings and attitudes toward only one or two targets. Contradictions so narrow and specific may be insufficient to impact global trait-level self-esteem in a meaningful way.

On the one hand, narrower measures of self-esteem might prove to be more malleable. People’s thoughts and behavior during a particular event or time period might affect how they feel about themselves during that specific time. On the other hand, more frequent, numerous, or chronically salient contradictions between people’s gut feelings and the attitudes they believe to be appropriate might have a stronger impact on self-esteem than the one or two attitudes we were able to assess.

Some scholars have conducted experiments to confront participants with moral failures and trace their impact on self-evaluations (see Wojciszke, 2005). These participants often end these experiments feeling just fine. These results are consistent with decades of social-psychological research have documented individuals’ capacity to rationalize their behaviors and what they might consider to be failures to practice what they preach, and scholars have often argued that the point of this rationalization is to protect people’s positive self-images (e.g., Aronson, 1969; Kunda, 1990).

Small wonder, then, that slight divergences between “gut feelings” and “actual” attitudes in a single attitude domain failed to leave a dent in our participants’ self-esteem. Our study leaves open the possibility that some attitude-inconsistent feelings or behavior may be more uncomfortable than others, and that measures of more specific or shorter-term self-evaluation might be more likely to change in the wake of these behaviors. Future work might find that when people behave in ways that are clearly at odds with multiple important, moralized, or identity-central attitudes, they briefly feel worse about themselves.

Correlational Design. We have tested a multi-step causal framework with a correlational dataset, which cannot permit strong causal inferences. For example, we cannot know whether people come to identify with certain attitudes because they see them in moral terms, moralize attitudes because they are central to their identity, or come to moralize and identify with their attitudes simultaneously as a part of some larger process. The reality is probably a combination of these possibilities. For example, someone may come to identify with their pro-choice attitude because they see abortion access as a moral issue and also come to moralize their attitude toward Britney Spears, 50 Cent, or Harry Potter because they identify as a fan. Regardless, our evidence suggests that these processes are connected. At the same time, the latter part of the model proposed in Figure 1 is now less plausible, as our correlational evidence was inconsistent with the Identity Rubric hypothesis.

Homicide offenders have less pronounced psychopathy, sadism, and criminal recidivism compared to other violent offenders and non-violent offenders

How dark is the personality of murderers? Psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and sadism in homicide offenders. Janko Međedović, Nikola Vujičić. Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 197, October 2022, 111772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111772

Abstract: Dark personality traits describe amoral and antisocial behavioral dispositions and are often described by psychopathy (i.e., interpersonal, affective, lifestyle, and antisocial characteristics), narcissism, Machiavellianism, and sadism. These traits are related to various socially detrimental behavioral outcomes, including criminal behavior and delinquency. Furthermore, psychopathy is frequently related to homicide, both in scientific and in popular literature; however, the empirical data on the link between psychopathy and other dark traits with homicide is still scarce. We examined self-reported psychopathy, Machiavellianism, sadism, and the indicators of criminal recidivism (number of offences, number of lawful sentences and penal recidivism) in a sample of male homicide offenders (N = 46), other violent offenders (N = 82), and non-violent offenders (N = 119). The results showed that homicide offenders have less pronounced psychopathy, sadism, and criminal recidivism compared to the other two groups – the differences were particularly evident in comparison to the group of non-homicide violent offenders. There were no statistically significant differences in Machiavellianism. Our data cast a doubt on the widely acknowledged link between psychopathy and murder. The findings can be explained largely by the fact that homicide is a heterogeneous criminal offence; while it is possible that psychopathy and other dark traits may be linked to some types of homicide, this link cannot be established for homicide in general.

Introduction

In recent decades, there has been a growing interest in personality dispositions toward amoral and antisocial behavior. A comprehensive model of these traits is labeled as the Dark Tetrad (Međedović & Petrović, 2015; Paulhus, 2014) and encompasses traits like narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy and sadism. Narcissism depicts entitlement, superiority and an inflated view of self (Raskin & Terry, 1988); Machiavellianism represents an attitude which rationalizes and justifies the use of other people for one's self interest (Christie & Geis, 1970), while sadism is based on the aberration in emotional processes where one feels positive emotions (enjoyment) when hurting others or watching others in distress (O'Meara et al., 2011). The trait that has the longest history of scientific inquiry is psychopathy – it represents a behavioral syndrome itself that consists of several narrow traits. There are various models of psychopathy, one of the most prominent is proposed by Hare and collaborators and it defines psychopathy as a syndrome of interpersonal (egoistic and manipulative) behavior, affective characteristics (lack of emotional empathy, fear, and guilt), lifestyle characteristics (impulsiveness, lack of long-term plans, sensation seeking) and antisocial behavior (Hare & Neumann, 2008). The dark personality traits are related to various socially undesirable outcomes like cheating (Esteves et al., 2021), bullying (van Geel et al., 2017), violence (Pailing et al., 2014), and others.

Since the Dark tetrad traits are based on selfishness, lack of compassion, and the tendency to manipulate or hurt others, it is not surprising that they are important predictors of antisocial behavior and delinquency (Chabrol et al., 2009; Međedović & Kovačević, 2020). The relation between dark traits and criminal behavior is mostly researched in the context of psychopathy and it is most firmly established for this trait. Psychopathy is positively related to the number of violent and-nonviolent offences, substance abuse, contact with police and criminal courts, and others (Vaughn & DeLisi, 2008). It is negatively associated with educational levels, long-term jobs, the age of the first offence and first lawful sentence (Žukauskienė et al., 2010). Finally, there is reliable data that psychopathy can positively predict criminal recidivism (Leistico et al., 2008; Međedović et al., 2012a, Međedović et al., 2012b; Salekin, 2008). Due to the fact that recidivists commit most criminal offences (e.g., Someda, 2009), this association has both scientific and practical implications.

Comprehensive taxonomies of the dark traits, including the Dark tetrad, have rarely been examined in a criminological, penal, or forensic context; hence, the research on the links between the dark traits and the type of criminal offence is still very scarce. However, there is a common belief that psychopathy is related to homicide offences, both in popular culture and media (Lilienfeld & Arkowitz, 2007) and in scientific context (Fox & DeLisi, 2019). Indeed, there is a large amount of data showing that murders committed by psychopathic individuals have some specific characteristics. For example, homicides perpetrated by individuals with elevated psychopathy are more instrumental in nature (i.e., premeditated and planned), deliberate, and to a lower level motivated by affective reactions (Woodworth & Porter, 2002). Furthermore, the data show that psychopathic murderers are more frequently not close to their victim and deny their charges (Häkkänen-Nyholm & Hare, 2009). The existing data suggests that a positive link between psychopathy and reoffending exists in homicide perpetrators as well (Laurell & Dåderman, 2005). Finally, psychopathy is more pronounced in the group of offenders who have committed sexual homicides (Porter et al., 2003) and it is positively related to the criminal relapse in this group of offenders (Myers et al., 2010).

Therefore, it seems that homicide offences committed by psychopathic individuals have some specific qualities. However, is there a connection between psychopathy and murder in general - are individuals with elevated psychopathy traits more prone to commit homicide than other types of offences? The existing evidence suggests that the answer is once again positive. A recent meta-analysis showed large effect sizes of the link between psychopathy and homicide (Fox & DeLisi, 2019). However, the data is not unambiguous. There are studies that have found that psychopathy traits (i.e., lifestyle and interpersonal characteristics) are expressed to a lower extent in a group of homicide offenders compared to non-homicide repeated offenders (Sherretts et al., 2017); there were no differences between murderers and first-time non-homicide offenders in this study. The authors concluded that psychopathic traits are more likely to be found in persistent offenders (i.e., recidivists), characterized by criminal careers, than in homicide offenders.

Current empirical literature on the links between the dark traits (all but psychopathy) and homicide is quite scarce. This is in contrast with the high heuristic and practical importance of the topic: by establishing these links, personality psychologists can achieve a more in-depth understanding of the dark side of the human personality; on the other hand, forensic practitioners can achieve better understanding of the murderers' personality and provide more accurate models for predicting homicide offences. The goal of the present research is to provide a more detailed examination of the relation between the dark personality characteristics and homicide. We believe that there are three main contributions of the present study over the existing ones. Firstly, we analyzed not only psychopathy, but also Machiavellianism and sadism in homicide offenders (Narcissism unfortunately was not included in the list of variables collected in this study); the data on the two latter traits in this context are very scarce. Sadism may be especially significant in the context of homicide offences: murders are violent offences and sadism represents particularly volatile and destructive form of aggressiveness – the one which carries positive emotions as a reinforcement for the perpetrator (Međedović, 2017). Hence, it can be assumed that sadism may be relevant in understanding personality characteristics of homicide offenders. Secondly, we compared not only homicide to non-homicide offenders in this study. Homicide is just one of the violent offences, however, it may differ from other forms of violent offences; therefore, we analyzed homicide offenders, non-homicide violent offenders and non-violent offenders. Finally, we included the measures of criminal recidivism in the study.

Our analyses were guided by several hypotheses. Note that we base our hypotheses on previous research on psychopathy in a forensic and criminological context since there are no data regarding other traits. However, we believe that the same hypotheses can be set for all examined dark traits in the context of the present research (i.e., examining the relations between dark traits, the type of offence and criminal recidivism): psychopathy (especially multidimensionally-measured psychopathy as it was assessed in the present study) shares a substantial portion of variation with other dark traits (Chabrol et al., 2009; Međedović & Petrović, 2015), and this shared variation is based on the lack of empathy and interpersonal antagonism (Dinić et al., 2021). Therefore, we expected all the dark traits to be positively related to criminal recidivism. Regarding the relation between the dark traits and homicide, two contrasting hypotheses can be made: leaning on meta-analytic results (Fox & DeLisi, 2019) we could expect that psychopathy is more highly pronounced in homicide offenders than the other two groups. On the contrary, the results of Sherretts et al. (2017) suggest that the dark traits may be less expressed in the homicide offenders compared to other groups of offenders.

More intelligent individuals reported lower symptom counts, less chronic conditions, lower rates of depression, less frequent visits to the doctor, and fewer limitations in their daily lives

An intelligent mind in a healthy body? Predicting health by cognitive ability in a large European sample. Jonathan Fries Jakob Pietschnig. Intelligence, Volume 93, July–August 2022, 101666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2022.101666

Highlights

• We demonstrate that cognitive ability predicts various aspects of health in adults over 55 years.

• Effect sizes are modest, but may have a considerable impact on population level.

• The most closely g-related construct (mathematical reasoning) predicted indicators of health most consistently.

• Environmental and behavioral risk factors do not play a meaningful role for the intelligence-health association.

Abstract: Intelligence has been consistently demonstrated to be a predictor of health outcomes. However, the exact mechanisms are subject of debate. Environmental and behavioral risk factors have been suggested to affect the intelligence-health association, but the available literature has mostly focused on children and young adults. Here, we aimed to investigate the intelligence-health association in older adults. We analyzed data from the Study of Health and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), a representative longitudinal survey in which participants above 50 years of age (N range = 10,000-30,000+) were interviewed in seven waves from 2004 to 2017. Indicators of physical and mental health (e.g., number of symptoms; self-reported depression) were associated with cognitive function variables (mathematical reasoning, word recall, verbal fluency) which were used as proxy measures for intelligence. Behavioral and environmental risk factors (e.g., legal drug consumption, physical inactivity, work environment) were examined as potential moderator variables for the intelligence-health association. More favorable health outcomes were modestly, but consistently associated with higher cognitive ability across variables (r range = |0.13|-|0.29|). Mixed-model Poisson regression analyses showed a reduction of 11% in self-reported symptom numbers with each unit increase in mathematical reasoning. Environmental and behavioral risk factors exhibited mostly trivial moderating effects on the intelligence-health association. Our findings reveal a positive association of intelligence and health in a representative longitudinal European sample. Environmental and behavioral risk factors offered little explanatory value for this association, suggesting a different underlying mechanism such as a general fitness factor that affects both intelligence and health.

4. Discussion

Here, we investigated the associations of cognitive ability and health in a representative longitudinal sample of EU residents above the age of 50. Specifically, we examined various indicators of physical and mental health, along with behavioral and environmental risk factors as well as cognitive functioning. In our analyses, a consistent pattern emerged: cognitive ability was associated with the rate of chronic illnesses, symptoms, limitations in daily activities, and other indicators of health. This was true both for individual cognitive ability indicators and the g-factor approximation we calculated from these indicators. Environmental and behavioral risk factors, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, BMI, or work environment showed little moderating effects. Physical inactivity was the only covariate that exhibited moderating effects on the intelligence-health association.

The strength of the associations was small to moderate in size. Such effects have practical meaning in the short term but can be considered even more meaningful on a larger scale and in the long term. Intelligence and health are relevant to every single human. Thus, even small differences cumulate over time and can have tremendous consequences not only on an individual but perhaps more importantly, a societal level (Funder & Ozer, 2019). Previous research has reported effect sizes of similar strength (for an overview, see Deary et al., 2021). The direction of effects was as expected: higher cognitive ability was positively related to more favorable health outcomes. More intelligent individuals reported lower symptom counts, less chronic conditions, lower rates of depression, less frequent visits to the doctor, and fewer limitations in their daily lives.

Notably, the largest effects were observed for self-perceived health. This variable encompasses a broad spectrum of health and may paint a more comprehensive picture than the other – more specific – indicators in the SHARE dataset. This makes sense because self-perceived or self-rated health is considered a reliable and robust predictor of health and mortality and has often been used in many studies on aging (e.g., French, Sargent-Cox, & Luszcz, 2012; Machón, Vergara, Dorronsoro, Vrotsou, & Larrañaga, 2016). This can be attributed to the multi-dimensional and dynamic properties of this variable. Interviewees may not be aware of every detrimental condition from which they suffer, because some conditions may remain undiagnosed. However, self-perceived health assesses a wide range of sensations and symptoms that may indicate countless physical and mental health conditions in clinical and pre-clinical stages (Benyamini, 2011). Because self-perceived health arguably captures a larger proportion of variance in overall health than any other available variable, this variable may yield therefore the best representation of the true effect in terms of the intelligence-health association in the SHARE dataset.

It is important to consider the meaning of different directionalities of the observed effects; specifically, whether higher cognitive ability is the consequence of better health or whether higher cognitive ability leads to better health over the course of life. Though the longitudinal design of this study encompassed only a later part in participants' lives and does not allow for causal inferences, our results indicate that cognitive ability has an age-independent effect on health. If the intelligence-health association were a mere consequence of deteriorating health, this correlation would be expected to be substantially attenuated when controlling for age, because age is a robust predictor of self-perceived as well as objectively measured health (e.g., Cullati, Rousseaux, Gabadinho, Courvoisier, & Burton-Jeangros, 2014; Rockwood, Song, & Mitnitski, 2011). However, this was not the case in our analyses, thus indicating that cognitive ability may be more likely to affect health instead of the other way round. Nonetheless, it seems plausible that good health also exerts positive effects on intelligence, thus representing a positive feedback loop in which higher cognitive ability facilitates better health which in turn helps maintaining high abilities.

Cancer on a general level did not correlate with any indicator of cognitive ability. This makes sense, because in contrast to many other health conditions (such as cardiovascular disease), a large number of cancer types does not depend on lifestyle factors and can therefore be expected not to be influenced by deliberated lifestyle choices. This observation is consistent with previous findings on this topic suggesting that lifestyle choices may not cause most types of cancer, with the notable exception of lung cancer (Calvin et al., 2017).

Across analyses, participants' numeracy scores proved to be the most robust predictor out of individual cognitive ability indicators: correlations decreased only to a minor degree when controlled for participant age, thus indicating that these associations were relatively unaffected by expectable age-related ability declines. In regression analyses, numeracy most reliably predicted health outcomes. This was expected because mathematical reasoning can be assumed to be more highly g-loaded than the other cognitive function indices in the SHARE dataset and is likely to estimate general cognitive ability more reliably (Peng et al., 2019). When controlled for age and education, the associations between cognitive ability and health were attenuated but remained meaningful and invariably maintained their respective directions which indicates the remarkable robustness of this effect. This was the case for correlations, as well as regression analyses.

Intelligence exhibited some associations with environmental and behavioral risk factors, but the directions of effects were not as clear-cut as with health. Higher cognitive ability was associated with lower rates of physical inactivity, which is consistent with previous findings (e.g., Wraw et al., 2018) that are suggestive of higher-intelligence individuals exhibiting higher ability and motivation to engage in vigorous physical activities (but see Kumpulainen et al., 2017, for contrasting results). Physical inactivity may be related to health literacy which is defined as the ability to gain access to information about health topics, as well as to interpret it and communicate about it. Health literacy is considered to be a prerequisite of informed health-related decision making (Berkman, Davis, & McCormack, 2010). Health literacy has been proposed as an important factor in the intelligence-health relationship because more intelligent individuals are assumed to obtain and process relevant health information more easily than less intelligent persons. Some research even suggests that health literacy is simply a context-specific component of general intelligence (Reeve & Basalik, 2014).

We had hypothesized BMI, smoking, and alcohol consumption to be negatively associated with cognitive ability. However, BMI was not meaningfully associated with cognitive ability, and neither was smoking. In previous accounts, smoking cessation has often been found to be linked with intelligence, but uptake of smoking has not (Taylor et al., 2003). Here, we only considered whether participants had ever smoked, but not if or when they quit which may have masked a potential association with cognitive ability.

Among risk factors, consumption of alcoholic beverages exhibited small, but meaningful positive correlations with cognitive ability, indicating that individuals with higher cognitive ability in fact consumed more alcohol than lower-ability persons. Previous studies have found similar correlations indicating more frequent overall alcohol consumption in subjects with higher childhood intelligence, but lower rates of problematic drinking behavior (Cheng & Furnham, 2013; Kanazawa & Hellberg, 2010). These findings may be attributed to several different causes. It has been suggested that more intelligent individuals might be better equipped to avoid adverse health effects of drinking (e.g., by reducing their intake when they become aware about an onset of problematic drinking behavior). Considering that our analyses indicated no correlation with unfavorable health outcomes, our results are generally in line with this interpretation. Others have speculated that the success in certain (particularly white-collar) professions may depend to some extent on the willingness to drink alcohol in social settings that are typically related to more cognitively challenging jobs (Batty et al., 2008). Another possibility is that more intelligent individuals are better able to veil their problematic consumption from others or even physicians tend to misattribute problematic behaviors in more intelligent persons to less socially undesirable causes (Just-Ostergaard et al., 2019).

Unsurprisingly, participants who worked in higher-risk work environments scored lower on the cognitive function variables. This could indicate that low-risk, white-collar jobs are selected for via intelligence, which would be in line with previous research (Strenze, 2007). However, because in the present study cognitive ability was assessed at an average age of 64 years, one could argue that lower cognitive function may reflect overall poor health as a consequence of environmental factors such as work environment. Nevertheless, work environment exhibited only trivial bivariate associations with health which contrasts this interpretation.

Among environmental and behavioral risk factors, physical inactivity was the only one that showed consistent associations with health, especially regarding the number of limitations in activities of daily life faced by participants. Importantly, physical inactivity can be considered both a risk factor and an outcome because it may be the result of prolonged illness (Watson et al., 2016). The SHARE participants that were included in our analyses were assessed six to seven times over the course of the study. If one assumes that declining health is associated with increasing physical inactivity, including the repeated measures as a random-effects variable would have attenuated the influence of deteriorating health. In fact, our mixed-effects regression analyses showed that physical inactivity meaningfully predicted various health outcomes, thus indicating that physical inactivity may be at least in part accountable for worse health outcomes. Nevertheless, the SHARE data do not allow for causal inferences on whether physical inactivity was the cause of illness or caused by deteriorating health. Gerontological literature has established that physical activity is a major protective factor in preventing or delaying chronic illness. Therefore, physicians recommend that physical activity is resumed or picked up even in the presence of chronic health conditions (Watson et al., 2016).

Smoking did not appear to meaningfully correlate with any unfavorable health outcome and neither did alcohol consumption. Other studies on the SHARE data came to similar conclusions (e.g., Abuladze, Kunder, Lang, & Vaask, 2017). Importantly, we did not examine the amount of smoking here, because we only included a binary item that assessed whether participants had ever smoked. The group that answered “Yes” also encompassed individuals that had quit smoking in the past. It is well-documented that quitting smoking has a positive impact on many aspects of physical and mental health (Critchley & Capewell, 2003; Taylor et al., 2014). Thus, the adverse health effects of smoking might have been obscured by the inclusion of these contrasting groups. Alcohol consumption, on the other hand, was measured by current consumption levels. Our findings align with studies that demonstrate no adverse or suggest even beneficial health effects of moderate alcohol consumption in elderly individuals (Balsa et al., 2008).

Participants with higher BMI's exhibited slightly elevated rates of chronic conditions and reported slightly worse self-perceived health. It is important to note that BMI has long been subject to criticism because it does not account for body fat percentage and body fat distribution which are the main drivers of morbidity and mortality due to obesity (Nuttall, 2015). The BMI's questionable reliability negatively affects its capacity to predict health outcomes which might explain the low correlations we found in the SHARE sample. The fact that BMI showed associations with health despite its methodological issues suggests that the correlations we found in the SHARE sample can be considered to represent a bottom threshold of the true association.

Contrary to our expectations, health behaviors did not moderate the relationship between cognitive ability and health. The only notable exception was physical inactivity, but as discussed above, the direction of effect is ambiguous and unfavorable health effects cannot be causally attributed to physical inactivity here because they arguably exacerbate one another. BMI, smoking, alcohol consumption, and work environment risk did not meaningfully interact with cognitive ability. These results suggest that the intelligence-health association cannot be sufficiently explained by environmental and behavioral risk factors (i.e., at least by those that were assessed in the SHARE interviews). Thus, a different mechanism is required to understand the relationship.

In the literature, education has often been found to explain a substantial proportion of the variance in the intelligence-health association (e.g., Ariansen et al., 2015). In our analyses, controlling for education attenuated the association, indicating a moderating influence. Nevertheless, effect magnitudes remained meaningful, and the directions of effects were unchanged. This suggests that education did exert influence on the relationship between cognitive ability and health outcomes but was not sufficient to explain the effect in its entirety.

The intelligence-health association did not decrease when participants' country of residence was included in exploratory regression analyses. This indicates that the relationship is not meaningfully impacted by regional disparities.

An alternative explanation for this remarkably robust association could be found in a genetic factor that influences health as well as cognitive functioning. The existence of a general fitness factor has been suggested before based on phenotypical findings (Arden, Gottfredson, & Miller, 2009; Prokosch et al., 2009), but in recent years more evidence from genome-wide association studies has emerged that directly supports this theory. These studies suggest that a substantial proportion of variance in the intelligence-health association can be explained by genetic variation (Hill et al., 2019). High intelligence and favorable health often coincide because the biological bases of these features are located on the same genes. One of the challenges in this line of research is to deal with the question of causality: do genetic variants affect intelligence which subsequently affects health, or vice versa – or are both intelligence and health affected by the same genetic locations (Deary, Harris, & Hill, 2019)? The results we present here lend some phenotypic support for the latter interpretation. However, more research is necessary to clarify the direction of causality.

4.1. Limitations and future directions

In the current study, our goal was to shed light on the association of cognitive ability and health as well as its underpinnings. The SHARE-dataset represents an invaluable source to investigate these questions goal due to its representativeness, comprehensiveness, and longitudinal nature, but only comprises a limited number of cognitive measures. Cognitive function was assessed using four subtests measuring mathematical reasoning, immediate and delayed word recall, as well as verbal fluency. Despite being considered important components of intelligence in most contemporary established models (such as the CHC-model of intelligence, McGrew, 1997), these four indices can be only considered to be proxies of general cognitive ability. Therefore, we were unable to provide results of more fine-grained domain-specific associations of intelligence with health. In future community surveys, it would be beneficial to include more cognitive ability subtests, especially in terms of highly g-loaded tests such as Raven-typed matrices or figural analogies.

So far, in many longitudinal studies investigating the effects of intelligence on health (e.g., the Lothian Birth Cohort studies, Deary et al., 2007), intelligence was assessed at a young age and subsequently used as a predictor of health outcomes in later life. Here, we are limited by the SHARE study design which does not provide a measure of childhood cognitive ability; the earliest point of assessment was at a participant age of 50 years. Therefore, our analyses potentially carry an inherent bias: reduced cognitive ability at an older age may be the result of poor health, not its cause. To reduce the risk of reverse causation, we controlled for age in correlation analyses. Moreover, if low cognitive ability was the result of certain health conditions, cognitive decline can be expected to progress over the course of the multiple SHARE interview waves. In regression analyses, the cognitive development over the course of the study was held constant which at the very least attenuates this effect.

Death or severe illness may have caused participants to drop out of the SHARE study in later waves. Thus, it is possible that health is overestimated in later waves because the participants exhibiting the worst health are likely to have exited the study. This may have had an attenuating effect on the intelligence-health association in our analyses, thus leading to a conservative effect estimation.

In our analyses, we included risk factors hypothesized to moderate the intelligence-health association. Although the SHARE interviews cover some aspects, other potentially relevant factors are missing. For instance, managing individual health needs is a crucial skill that gains relevance over the human lifespan (Gottfredson, 2004). How well one takes care of one's own health includes how diligently treatment regimens are being observed. Thus far, few studies have tracked patients' adherence to treatment plans in relation to their cognitive ability (e.g., Deary, Corley, et al., 2009; Deary, Gale, et al., 2009). These are only some examples of many conceivably influential variables on this association which future researchers may wish to consider.

The intelligence-health association is not merely a matter of psychometric interest, but highly relevant to society at large. In plain words, more intelligent individuals have a higher chance of good health and a long life compared to less intelligent individuals. Advances in healthcare equality seem to have little mitigating effects (Gottfredson, 2004). Consequently, this association has been causing disparities in health outcomes and life expectancies along the lines of the intelligence distribution. Scientific inquiry is a necessary first step in the process of addressing this issue, but large-scale public policy solutions are needed to ensure that all members of society have equal chances of a long and healthy life, regardless of their respective genetic makeup. Unfortunately, public health interventions are often limited to targeting health behaviors, such as smoking or obesity, and ignore the deeper nature of the intelligence-health connection that the evidence is pointing to.